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Area proposal: Representation and validity invariants #5

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Aug 30, 2018
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Area proposal: Representation and validity invariants #5

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700a362
first draft
nikomatsakis Aug 24, 2018
0210bd8
remove talk of safety invariant
nikomatsakis Aug 24, 2018
3f1c5b6
tweak wording around when validity constraints must hold
nikomatsakis Aug 24, 2018
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discuss `isize` a bit
nikomatsakis Aug 24, 2018
2ffdace
add notes about ABI
nikomatsakis Aug 24, 2018
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added various points raised by people on the PR
nikomatsakis Aug 28, 2018
ea953e9
add a note about `0_usize` and null
nikomatsakis Aug 28, 2018
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add some notes about usize/isize
nikomatsakis Aug 28, 2018
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remove content that seems specific to the validity invariant
nikomatsakis Aug 30, 2018
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160 changes: 149 additions & 11 deletions active_discussion/representation.md
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# Data structure representation
# Data structure representation and validity requirements

In general, Rust makes few guarantees about memory layout, unless you
define your structs as `#[repr(rust)]`. But there are some things that
we do guarantee. Let's write about them.
## Introduction

TODO:
This discussion is meant to focus on two things:
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The list below has three items.

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fixed :)


- Find and link to the various RFCs
- Enumerate things that we *might* in fact guarantee, even for non-C types:
- e.g., `&T` and `Option<&T>` are both pointer sized
- size of `extern fn` etc (at least on some platforms)?
- For which `T` is `None` represented as a "null pointer" etc?
- (Which "niche" optimizations can we rely on)
- What guarantees does Rust make regarding the layout of data structures?
- What guarantees does Rust make regarding ABI compatibility?
- What invariants does the compiler require from the various Rust types?
- the "validity invariant", as defined in [Ralf's blog post][bp]

NB. The discussion is **not** meant to discuss the "safety invariant"
from [Ralf's blog post][bp], as that can be handled later.

[bp]: https://www.ralfj.de/blog/2018/08/22/two-kinds-of-invariants.html

### Layout of data structures

In general, Rust makes few guarantees about the memory layout of your
structures. For example, by default, the compiler has the freedom to
rearrange the field order of your structures for more efficiency (as
of this writing, we try to minimize the overall size of your
structure, but this is the sort of detail that can easily change). For
safe code, of course, any rearrangements "just work" transparently.

If, however, you need to write unsafe code, you may wish to have a
fixed data structure layout. In that case, there are ways to specify
and control how an individual struct will be laid out -- notably with
`#[repr]` annotations. One purpose of this section, then, is to layout
what sorts of guarantees we offer when it comes to layout, and also
what effect the various `#[repr]` annotations have.

### ABI compatibilty

When one either calls a foreign function or is called by one, extra
care is needed to ensure that all the ABI details line up. ABI compatibility
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Clarification question: "ABI" is always about function calls? The term appears in TyLayout, which is used for laying out types in general, so I am a bit confused about that. And "Application Binary Interface" seems to be much larger in scope than just function calls. Should this be "function call ABI" in the text, or am I just missing come context?

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ABI includes data structure layout and other things beyond function calling conventions, yeah. One needs to take care of all these aspects in FFI, but it seems clear that this section is about calling conventions specifically.

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I specifically meant the details of function calling here, but I guess I would presume that "ABI" in general refers to how structures in the language are mapped to the underlying architecture.

is related to data structure layout but -- in some cases -- can add another
layer of complexity. For example, consider a struct with one field, like this one:

```rust
#[repr(C)]
struct Foo { field: u32 }
```

The memory layout of `Foo` is identical to a `u32`. But in many ABIs,
the struct type `Foo` is treated differently at the point of a
function call than a `u32` would be. Eliminating these gaps is the
goal of the `#[repr(transparent)]` annotation introduced in [RFC
1758]. For built-in types, such as `&T` and so forth, it is important
for us to specify how they are treated at the point of a function
call.

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### Validity invariant

The "validity invariant" for each type defines what must hold whenever
a value of this type is considered to be initialized. The compiler expects
the validity invariant to hold **at all times** and is thus allowed to use
these invariants to (e.g.) affect the layout of data structures or do other
optimizations.
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@gnzlbg gnzlbg Aug 24, 2018 •
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I find this paragraph too confusing. It states that the validity invariant must hold at all times, but that it only defines what must hold for initialized values, so I am left wondering what happens with uninitialized values. Do they exist? Is there a distinction between the storage of a value, and the value itself (e.g. uninitialized memory of type T contains no value of type T).

It might help to add one sentence stating something about uninitialized values / memory that clarifies things. But I don't know what that might look like.

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Perhaps, "at all times when a value the compiler considers a value to be initialized"? This is probably the most precise statement, though perhaps not the most intuitive. It is also the phrasing that @RalfJung used, if I recall.

I do want to improve the language, but at the same time, I am not sure how much detail I want to go into in this document. I guess it's good to invest some effort though defining our terms carefully, however.

One of the subtle bits -- and I'm not sure how best to phrase this -- is that one of the questions we want to discuss is how to think about loads from uninitialized memory. (e.g., accesses to union fields etc). Most of the time, this is UB, but there are definitely use cases for being able to load from uninitialized memory if you treat the result as an integer (or perhaps any other scalar type where all bit patterns are valid). I think the key point there is that the point where the compiler considers the memory initialized is exactly the point of load.

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This is probably the most precise statement,

That sounds fine.

I think one thing I've been missing from the discussion is the difference between typed memory, and whether objects of the type actually live in that memory. Validity could then be about the layout of the objects in memory. This layout depends on which values these objects can represent.

Whether we require all typed memory accessible from safe Rust to always contain objects of its type, and whether we allow unsafe Rust to access memory that contains no objects (e.g. uninitialized), would relate to safety, but validity wouldn't talk about that.

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One of the harder questions that I don't think has been sufficiently addressed is what form invalidity should take. Almost all of the discussion has been talking about UB, but there are lots of other notions of "incorrect": undef/varying value, poison, frozen poison/arbitrary value, some sort of sticky poison that on creation also marks some memory locations as permanently inaccessible, etc.

The wording of saying that the validity invariant should hold at all times or even at all times when the compiler considers a value to be initialized implies UB, but I generally think this is the wrong choice and we should avoid it if we can get away with it. In my (admittedly limited) experience, actual UB makes things harder to optimize, not easier, since it makes intuitively pure operations have side effects, which makes operations very hard to reorder.

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Oh, and it also occurs to me that there are multiple notions of UB, corresponding to the question of whether the println! can be optimized away in

println!("Before UB!");
invoke_ub();

That is, does UB invalidate the entire program since the compiler is allowed to assume it never happens, or does is just invalidate the program from the point it happens onward?

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That's certainly true of C or LLVM's undefined behaviour, but it isn't the only way incorrect behaviour could be specified. I suppose I shouldn't call it UB, though, since that is confusing (although I think this new notion actually fits the description of undefined behaviour better). Since we are in the process of specifying what Rust is, we get to choose whatever semantics we want (within the bounds of what we can reasonably compile to LLVM). Concretely, the two notions are:

  • (C's UB) The compiler is allowed to assume that the incorrect action never happens.

  • (I don't know what to call this) Upon the incorrect action happening, the program is allowed perform any series of actions (i.e. syscalls, not time travel). If we model the side effects of a program as a sequence of system calls (and some other things like volatile memory accesses), then this just says that an undefined (in this sense) operation never returns and adds on an arbitrary and possibly infinitely long series of system calls, but the system calls that led to the operation can't be deleted.

    In the blog post you linked, if C used this semantics (which it doesn't), the invalid piece of reasoning would be the rewrite of unwitting: the "UB" is not just saying that the compiler is allowed to assume something. Although the calls to value_or_fallback and wait_for_door_to_open would be removable, the call to ring_bell would not be since it happened before the "UB".

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What would be the value of doing that and what would that cost?

Thinking of what would that cost, you showed this snippet:

println!("Before UB!");
invoke_ub();

Imagine invoke_ub would do a null ptr dereference of a pointer completely unrelated with anything happening on the print. If that pointer isn't null, the compiler could actually reorder the dereference before the print, so that the memory load, if it has a cache miss, can happen out-of-order while the print executes.

However, if the compiler cannot assume that UB does not happen, then suddenly it cannot do that optimization, and potentially it cannot really reorder any code, since that could alter when undefined behavior happens.

That's a pretty big cost of optimization potential.

Thinking of what does this buy us, I still don't see that it buys us much. If we don't reorder the load, after the print undefined behavior still happens. For all we know that could clear the stdout buffer before its flushed (if the print doesn't flush it). That is, even if we guarantee the print to execute correctly before UB, then the UB afterwards could still allow the print not to show.

As I understand, the point of the guidelines or a spec is to define the behavior of Rust programs, and to state which programs are Rust and which programs aren't Rust. Programs with undefined behavior aren't Rust (they are illegal Rust programs). So trying to define the behavior of programs with undefined behavior doesn't make much sense to me, since it appears equivalent to trying to define the behavior of all programs that aren't really Rust. Even if that was interesting, that wouldn't belong in the Rust spec - but in the spec for non-Rust programs.

Does that make sense?

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What would be the value of doing that and what would that cost?

Sorry if I wasn't clear: I didn't mean to imply that I think that we should make this specification the only notion of UB in all of Rust, nor even that we necessarily should use this at all. As you mention, there are very real costs, and in many cases (including dereferences of invalid pointers) I don't even see a way to correctly lower to LLVM, since LLVM uses C's stricter notion of UB.

I simply meant to say that

  • For every single thing we say is invalid, we have a independent choice of what semantics to give it.
  • All the discussions about unsafe code I've seen have just said UB since that is in some sense a default, but we never made an explicit choice.
  • We should discuss tradeoffs and make explicit choices.
  • One option of very many that we could pick is this "constrained UB" that I was describing.

Thinking of what does this buy us, I still don't see that it buys us much.

That said, obviously part of the reason I bring it up as an option is because I think it does have merit in some cases (though out of the many options, my general favourite is some form of poison). For example:

  • Security. If secrets like passwords and keys are stored in some volatile memory and properly cleared after use, it would be useful to know that some bug in unrelated code long after the sensitive computation is complete can't expose the secrets. Or, for another example, if a web server does (completely bug-free) authentication with users and after that is complete gives access to an API that is insecure and buggy, it would be good to know that until someone finds and triggers the bug (which may be much more difficult if only authenticated users have access to it), the server will only authenticate valid users.
  • Debugging. If using eprintln! or explicitly flushing streams, then it can be much easier to track down where the invalid code is, since the logs will be correct up to the point of the bug, and it may be possible to notice the anomalies. Note that this is relevant even with optimizations off, since Rust still does things like layout and uninhabitedness optimizations while debugging.
  • Explainability. This is naturally a "softer" argument, but I think it holds. The "full UB" statement of "the compiler is allowed to produce literally anything if you do UB since it can assume it doesn't happen" is really quite simple, but articles like the one you linked show that the way people think about it is more complex. Instead of using a denotational "this program has no meaning" explanation, people gravitate towards an operational description where the undefined behvaiour is an action that happens - it just goes back in time and does very strange things. From this operational viewpoint, the "constrained UB" makes more sense. It just means that when you execute it, something (anything) happens. Just not unreal things like time travel because those aren't things that can happen. System calls are.

Programs with undefined behavior aren't Rust (they are illegal Rust programs). So trying to define the behavior of programs with undefined behavior doesn't make much sense

I disagree. Anything written in Rust is a Rust program, regardless of how legal it is. Now, if a Rust program unconditionally executes undefined behaviour, then it is a completely and utterly meaningless Rust program, but it is still Rust. Throwing up our hands and saying "doing this destroys your program" is a completely reasonable response to certain things, but there is nothing fundamentally different about that choice from saying "doing this crashes your program". They are both specifications, just one very very loose and the other not.

In particular, I don't understand your point of view when it comes to programs that are conditionally UB. For example:

if user_input() == 5 {
    invoke_ub();
}

This is certainly a broken program, but that doesn't mean it isn't Rust, and it doesn't mean we don't give it semantics. In particular, if no user ever inputs 5, this seems perfectly legal. We should guarantee that the program works correctly and does something predictable as long as no one ever enters 5. (At least I was pretty sure this was the consensus. Machine checkable UB is pretty weak if even never-reached UB can totally break your program.)

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For every single thing we say is invalid, we have a independent choice of what semantics to give it.

This is true, but UB is in many ways a "safe" choice because it's the strongest prohibition and can be weakened later. So if we declare everything either "UB" or "totally allowed" in the UC we can revisit it later and tweak that decision, and until we do that we can be sure we haven't painted outselves into a corner that's not implementable or has negative repercussions for optimizations we want to enable. Also consider that weaker prohibitions are

  • rarely applicable: as you say, many kinds of UB are hard to implement in LLVM -- or any other optimizer, for that matter
  • niche compared to the immense value of finally having settled what's legal or not in unsafe Rust
  • rather difficult and subtle to consciously make use of (e.g. the security example you give is more defense-in-depth than something programmers would reason about and rely on)

In particular, I don't understand your point of view when it comes to programs that are conditionally UB. For example:

We can usefully talk about the many possible well-defined executions of this programs, but there are possible executions which are undefined and so, without wading into the philosophical discussions, it at least isn't a correct program.

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Oh, and it also occurs to me that there are multiple notions of UB, corresponding to the question of whether the println! can be optimized away

Optimizing away the println! in that situation requires knowing that it will return.

For example, if your program is run with a seccomp filter on stdout that makes write issue a SIGKILL, then I'm quite sure the program is very well-defined - it will kill itself.


Therefore, the validity invariant must **at minimum** justify all the
layout optimizations that the compiler does. We may want a stronger
invariant, however, so as to leave room for future optimization.

As an example, a value of `&T` type can never be null -- therefore,
`Option<&T>` can use null to represent `None`.

## Goals

- Define what we guarantee about the layout of various types
and the effect of `#[repr]` annotations.
- Define the **validity requirements** of various types. These are the
requirements that must hold at all times when the compiler considers
a value to be initialized.
- Also examine when/how we could dynamically check these requirements.
- Uncover the sorts of constraints that we may wish to satisfy in the
future.

## Some interesting examples and questions

- `&T` where `T: Sized`
- This is **guaranteed** to be a non-null pointer
- `Option<&T>` where `T: Sized`
- This is **guaranteed** to be a nullable pointer
- `Option<extern "C" fn()>`
- `usize`
- Platform dependent size, but guaranteed to be able to store a pointer?
- Also an array length?

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@hanna-kruppe hanna-kruppe Aug 28, 2018 •
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@gnzlbg AFAIK while the constant expression 0 turns into the NULL pointer when cast to a pointer, a runtime integer value cast to 0 does not necessarily have to turn into the NULL pointer when cast at run time (int<->ptr casts are implementation-defined anyway IIRC).

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@rkruppe indeed, the zero is null is only so for constant expressions .

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That's C++, though, right? For Rust we can just say that a pointer is NULL iff its bits are all 0...

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Yes, we can say that, and we would exclude some (possibly hypothetical) targets/implementations by doing that. That's what needs to be discussed.

- Uninitialized bits -- for which types are uninitialized bits valid?
- If you have `struct A { .. }` and `struct B { .. }` with no
`#[repr]` annotations, and they have the same field types, can we
say that they will have the same layout?
- or do we have the freedom to rearrange the types of `A` but not
`B`, e.g. based on PGO results

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- Rust currently says that no single value may be larger than `isize` bytes
- is this good? can it be changed? does it matter *here* anyway?

## Active threads

To start, we will create threads for each major categories of types
(with a few suggested focus points):

- Integers and floating points

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- What about uninitialized values?
- Booleans
- Prior discussions ([#46156][], [#46176][]) documented bool as a single
byte that is either 0 or 1.
- Enums
- See dedicated thread about "niches" and `Option`-style layout optimization
below.
- Define: C-like enum
- Can a C-like enum ever have an invalid discriminant? (Presumably not)
- Empty enums and the `!` type
- [RFC 2195][] defined the layout of `#[repr(C)]` enums with payloads.
- [RFC 2363][] offers a proposal to permit specifying discriminations.
- Structs
- Do we ever say *anything* about how a `#[repr(rust)]` struct is laid out
(and/or treated by the ABI)?
- e.g., what about different structs with same definition
- across executions of the same program?
- Tuples
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A somewhat common request is layout compatibility between homogeneous tuples (i.e., (T, T, ..., T)) and the equivalent array.

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And vector types. A couple of them are already stable (e.g __m128 and friends)

- Are these effectively anonymous structs?
- Unions
- Can we ever say anything about the initialized contents of a union?
- Is `#[repr(C)]` meaningful on a union?

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- Fn pointers (`fn()`, `extern "C" fn()`)
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When is transmuting from one fn type to another allowed, such as in core::fmt? Perhaps this isn't relevant if any non-null, suitably aligned function pointer is valid.

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added

- References `&T` and `&mut T`
- Out of scope: aliasing rules
- We currently tell LLVM they are aligned and dereferenceable, have to justify that
- Safe code may use them also
- When using the C ABI, these map to the C pointer types, presumably
- Raw pointers
- Effectively same as integers?
- Representation knobs:
- Custom alignment ([RFC 1358])
- Packed ([RFC 1240] talks about some safety issues)
- ... what else?

We will also create categories for the following specific areas:

- Niches: Optimizing `Option`-like enums
- Uninitialized memory: when/where are uninitializes values permitted, if ever?
- ... what else?


[#46156]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/pull/46156
[#46176]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/pull/46176
[RFC 2363]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rfcs/pull/2363
[RFC 2195]: https://rust-lang.github.io/rfcs/2195-really-tagged-unions.html
[RFC 1358]: https://rust-lang.github.io/rfcs/1358-repr-align.html
[RFC 1240]: https://rust-lang.github.io/rfcs/1240-repr-packed-unsafe-ref.html
[RFC 1758]: https://rust-lang.github.io/rfcs/1758-repr-transparent.html