Merge pull request rust-lang#175 from RalfJung/memory-interface

WIP documents for memory interface and value domain
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+# Rust Memory Interface
+
+**Note:** This document is not normative nor endorsed by the UCG WG. Its purpose is to be the basis for discussion and to set down some key terminology.
+
+The purpose of this document is to describe the interface between a Rust program and memory.
+This interface is a key part of the Rust Abstract Machine: it lets us separate concerns by splitting the Machine (i.e., its specification) into two pieces, connected by this well-defined interface:
+* The *expression/statement semantics* of Rust boils down to explaining which "memory events" (calls to the memory interface) happen in which order - expressed as calls to the methods of this interface, and reactions to its return values.
+  This part of the specification is *pure* in the sense that it has no "state": everything that needs to be remembered from one expression evaluation to the next is communicated through memory.
+* The Rust *memory model* explains which interactions with the memory are legal (the others are UB), and which values can be returned by reads.
+  A memory model is defined by implementing the memory interface.
+
+The interface shown below is also opinionated in several ways.
+It is not intended to be able to support *any imaginable* memory model, but rather start the process of reducing the design space of what we consider a "reasonable" memory model for Rust.
+For example, it explicitly acknowledges that pointers are not just integers and that uninitialized memory is special (both are true for C and C++ as well but you have to read the standard very careful, and consult [defect report responses](http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/dr_260.htm), to see this).
+Another key property of the interface presented below is that it is *untyped*.
+This implies that in Rust, *operations are typed, but memory is not* - a key difference to C and C++ with their type-based strict aliasing rules.
+At the same time, the memory model provides a *side-effect free* way to turn pointers into "raw bytes", which is *not* [the direction C++ is moving towards](http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2364.pdf), and we might have to revisit this choice later if it turns out to not be workable.
+
+## Pointers
+
+One key question a memory model has to answer is *what is a pointer*.
+It might seem like the answer is just "an integer of appropriate size", but [that is not the case][pointers-complicated].
+This becomes even more prominent with aliasing models such as [Stacked Borrows].
+So we leave it up to the memory model to answer this question, and make `Pointer` an associated type.
+Practically speaking, `Pointer` will be some representation of an "address", plus [provenance] information.
+
+[provenance]: https://github.com/rust-lang/unsafe-code-guidelines/blob/master/reference/src/glossary.md#pointer-provenance
+
+## Bytes
+
+The unit of communication between the memory model and the rest of the program is a *byte*.
+Again, the question of "what is a byte" is not as trivial as it might seem; beyond `u8` values we have to represent `Pointer`s and [uninitialized memory][uninit].
+We define the `Byte` type as follows, where `Pointer` will later be instantiated with the `Memory::Pointer` associated type.
+
+```rust
+enum Byte<Pointer> {
+    /// The "normal" case: a (frozen, initialized) integer in `0..256`.
+    Raw(u8),
+    /// An uninitialized byte.
+    Uninit,
+    /// One byte of a pointer.
+    PtrFragment {
+        /// The pointer of which this is a byte.
+        /// That is, the byte is a fragment of this pointer.
+        ptr: Pointer,
+        /// Which byte of the pointer this is.
+        /// `idx` will always be in `0..PTR_SIZE`.
+        idx: u8,
+    }
+}
+```
+
+The purpose of `PtrFragment` is to enable a byte-wise representation of a `Pointer`.
+On a 32-bit system, the sequence of 4 bytes representing `ptr: Pointer` is:
+```
+[
+    PtrFragment { ptr, idx: 0 },
+    PtrFragment { ptr, idx: 1 },
+    PtrFragment { ptr, idx: 2 },
+    PtrFragment { ptr, idx: 3 },
+]
+```
+
+Based on the `PtrToInt` trait (see below), we can turn every initialized `Byte` into an integer in `0..256`:
+
+```rust
+impl<Pointer: PtrToInt> Byte<Pointer> {
+    fn as_int(self) -> Option<u8> {
+        match self {
+            Byte::Raw(int) => Some(int),
+            Byte::Uninit => None,
+            Byte::PtrFragment { ptr, idx } =>
+                Some(ptr.get_byte(idx)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+```
+
+## Memory interface
+
+The Rust memory interface is described by the following (not-yet-complete) trait definition:
+
+```rust
+/// All operations are fallible, so they return `Result`.  If they fail, that
+/// means the program caused UB. What exactly the `UndefinedBehavior` type is
+/// does not matter here.
+type Result<T=()> = std::result::Result<T, UndefinedBehavior>;
+
+/// *Note*: All memory operations can be non-deterministic, which means that
+/// executing the same operation on the same memory can have different results.
+/// We also let all operations potentially mutate memory. For example, reads
+/// actually do change the current state when considering concurrency or
+/// Stacked Borrows.
+/// This is pseudo-Rust, so we just use fully owned types everywhere for
+/// symmetry and simplicity.
+trait Memory {
+    /// The type of pointer values.
+    type Pointer: Copy + PtrToInt;
+
+    /// The size of pointer values.
+    const PTR_SIZE: u64;
+
+    /// Create a new allocation.
+    fn allocate(&mut self, size: u64, align: u64) -> Result<Self::Pointer>;
+
+    /// Remove an allocation.
+    fn deallocate(&mut self, ptr: Self::Pointer, size: u64, align: u64) -> Result;
+
+    /// Write some bytes to memory.
+    fn write(&mut self, ptr: Self::Pointer, bytes: Vec<Byte<Self::Pointer>>) -> Result;
+
+    /// Read some bytes from memory.
+    fn read(&mut self, ptr: Self::Pointer, len: u64) -> Result<Vec<Byte<Self::Pointer>>>;
+
+    /// Offset the given pointer.
+    fn offset(&mut self, ptr: Self::Pointer, offset: u64, mode: OffsetMode)
+        -> Result<Self::Pointer>;
+
+    /// Cast the given integer to a pointer.  (The other direction is handled by `PtrToInt` below.)
+    fn int_to_ptr(&mut self, int: u64) -> Result<Self::Pointer>;
+}
+
+/// The `Pointer` type must know how to extract its bytes, *without any access to the `Memory`*.
+trait PtrToInt {
+    /// Get the `idx`-th byte of the pointer.  `idx` must be in `0..PTR_SIZE`.
+    fn get_byte(self, idx: u8) -> u8;
+}
+
+/// The rules applying to this pointer offset operation.
+enum OffsetMode {
+    /// Wrapping offset; never UB.
+    Wrapping,
+    /// Non-wrapping offset; UB if it wraps.
+    NonWrapping,
+    /// In-bounds offset; UB if it wraps or if old and new pointer are not both
+    /// in-bounds of the same allocation (details are specified by the memory
+    /// model).
+    Inbounds,
+}
+```
+
+We will generally assume we have a particular memory model in scope, and freely refer to its `PTR_SIZE` and `Pointer` items.
+We will also write `Byte` for `Byte<Pointer>`.
+
+This is a very basic memory interface that is incomplete in at least the following ways:
+
+* To implement rules like "dereferencing a null, unaligned, or dangling raw pointer is UB" (even if no memory access happens), there needs to be a way to do an "alignment, bounds and null-check".
+* There needs to be some way to do alignment checks -- either using the above operation, or by adding `align` parameters to `read` and `write`.
+* To represent concurrency, many operations need to take a "thread ID" and `read` and `write` need to take an [`Ordering`].
+* To represent [Stacked Borrows], there needs to be a "retag" operation, and that one will in fact be "lightly typed" (it cares about `UnsafeCell`).
+* Maybe we want operations that can compare pointers without casting them to integers.
+
+[pointers-complicated]: https://www.ralfj.de/blog/2018/07/24/pointers-and-bytes.html
+[uninit]: https://www.ralfj.de/blog/2019/07/14/uninit.html
+[`Ordering`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/core/sync/atomic/enum.Ordering.html
+[Stacked Borrows]: stacked-borrows.md
diff --git a/wip/value-domain.md b/wip/value-domain.md
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+# Rust Value Domain
+
+**Note:** This document is not normative nor endorsed by the UCG WG. Its purpose is to be the basis for discussion and to set down some key terminology.
+
+The purpose of this document is to describe what the set of *all possible values* is in Rust.
+This is an important definition: one key element of a Rust specification will be to define the [representation relation][representation] of every type.
+This relation relates values with lists of bytes: it says, for a given value and list of bytes, if that value is represented by that list.
+However, before we can even start specifying the relation, we have to specify the involved domains.
+`Byte` is defined as part of [the memory interface][memory-interface]; this document is about defining `Value`.
+
+[representation]: https://github.com/rust-lang/unsafe-code-guidelines/blob/master/reference/src/glossary.md#representation
+[memory-interface]: memory-interface.md
+
+## Values
+
+The Rust value domain is described by the following (incomplete) type definition (using the `Pointer` type defined by [the memory interface][memory-interface]):
+
+```rust
+enum Value {
+    /// A mathematical integer, used for `i*`/`u*` types.
+    Int(BigInt),
+    /// A Boolean value, used for `bool`.
+    Bool(bool),
+    /// A pointer value, used for (thin) references and raw pointers.
+    Ptr(Pointer),
+    /// An uninitialized value.
+    Uninit,
+    /// An n-tuple, used for arrays, structs, tuples, SIMD vectors.
+    Tuple(Vec<Self>),
+    /// A variant of a sum type, used for enums.
+    Variant {
+        idx: BigInt,
+        data: Box<Self>,
+    },
+    /// A "bag of raw bytes", used for unions.
+    RawBag(Vec<Byte>),
+    /* ... */
+}
+```
+
+The point of this type is to capture the mathematical concepts that are represented by the data we store in memory.
+The definition is likely incomplete, and even if it was complete now, we might expand it as Rust grows.
+That is okay; all previously defined representation relations are still well-defined when the domain grows, the newly added values will just not be valid for old types as one would expect.
+
+## Example value relations
+
+We show some examples for how one might want to use this `Value` domain to define the value relation for a type.
+
+### `bool`
+
+The value relation for `bool` relates `Bool(b)` with `[r]` if and only if `r.as_int() == Some(if b { 1 } else { 0 })`.
+(`as_int` is defined in [the memory interface][memory-interface].)
+
+### `()`
+
+The value relation for the `()` type relates the empty tuple `Tuple([])` (assuming we can use array notation to "match" on `Vec`) with the empty byte list `[]`, and that's it.
+
+### `!`
+
+The value relation for the `!` type is empty: nothing is related to anything at this type.
+
+### `#[repr(C)] struct Pair<T, U>(T, U)`
+
+The value relation for `Pair` is based on the value relations for `T` and `U`.
+A value `Tuple([t, u])` is represented by a list of bytes `rt ++ pad1 ++ ru ++ pad2` (using `++` for list concatenation) if:
+
+* `t` is represented by `rt` at type `T`.
+* `u` is represented by `ru` at type `U`.
+* The length of `rt ++ pad1` is equal to the offset of the `U` field.
+* The length of the entire list `rt ++ pad1 ++ ru ++ pad2` is equal to the size of `Pair<T, U>`.
+
+This relation specifies that values of type `Pair` are always 2-tuples (aka, pairs).
+It also says that the actual content of the padding bytes is entirely irrelevant, we only care to have the right number of them to "pad" `ru` to the right place and to "pad" the entire list to have the right length.
+So, for example when considering `Pair<u8, u16>`, the value `Tuple[42, 119]` is represented on a little-endian target by `[Raw(42), byte, Raw(119), Raw(0)]` for *any* `byte: Byte`.
+
+### `&T`/`&mut T`
+
+Reference types are tricky.
+But a possible value relation for sized `T` is:
+A value `Ptr(ptr)` is related to `[PtrFragment { ptr, idx: 0 }, ..., PtrFragment { ptr, idx: PTR_SIZE-1 }]` if `ptr` is non-NULL and appropriately aligned (defining alignment is left open for now).
+
+### `u8`
+
+For the value representation of integer types, there are two different reasonable choices.
+Certainly, a value `Int(i)` where `i` in `0..256` is related to `[b]` if `b.as_int() == Some(i)`.
+
+And then, maybe, we also want to additionally say that value `Uninit` is related to byte list `[Uninit]`.
+This essentially corresponds to saying that uninitialized memory is a valid representation of a `u8` value (namely, the uninitialized value).
+
+### `NonZeroU8`
+
+`NonZeroU8` is basically the same as `u8` except that we remove the 0, and certainly do not consider `Uninit` a valid value.
+A value `Int(i)` where `i` in `1..256` is related to `[b]` if `b.as_int() == Some(i)`, and that's it.
+
+### `union`
+
+The `union` type does not even try to interpret memory, so for a `union` of size `n`, the value relation says that for any byte list `bytes` of that length, `RawBag(bytes)` is related to `bytes`.
+(Note however that [this definition might not be implementable](https://github.com/rust-lang/unsafe-code-guidelines/issues/156).)
+
+## The role of the value representation in the operational semantics
+
+One key use of the value representation is to define a "typed" interface to memory:
+
+```rust
+trait TypedMemory: Memory {
+    /// Write a value of the given type to memory.
+    fn typed_write(&mut self, ptr: Self::Pointer, val: Value, ty: Type) -> Result;
+
+    /// Read a value of the given type.
+    fn typed_read(&mut self, ptr: Self::Pointer, ty: Type) -> Result<Value>;
+}
+```
+
+Here, `Type` is some representation of the Rust type system (akin to [`Ty`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/nightly-rustc/rustc/ty/type.Ty.html) in the compiler).
+This interface is inspired by [Cerberus](https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~pes20/cerberus/).
+
+We can implement `TypedMemory` for any `Memory` as follows:
+* For `typed_write`, pick any representation of `val` for `ty`, and call `Memory::write`. If no representation exists, we have UB.
+* For `typed_read`, read `ty.size()` many bytes from memory, and then determine which value this list of bytes represents. If it does not represent any value, we have UB.
+
+In particular, this defines the semantics of a "typed copy": when an assignment is executed in Rust (at some type `T`), or when an argument of type `T` is passed to a function or a return value of type `T` returned from a function, this is called a "typed copy".
+Its semantics is basically to do a `typed_read` at `T` followed by a `typed_write` at `T`.
+In particular, this means doing a "typed copy" at `T` of some memory that has no valid representation at `T` is undefined behavior!
+This also means that for types that have padding, the "typed copy" does not preserve the padding bytes.
+
+## Relation to validity invariant
+
+One way we *could* also use the value representation (and the author thinks this is exceedingly elegant) is to define the validity invariant.
+Certainly, it is the case that if a list of bytes is not related to any value for a given type `T`, then that list of bytes is *invalid* for `T` and it should be UB to produce such a list of bytes at type `T`.
+We could decide that this is an "if and only if", i.e., that the validity invariant for a type is exactly "must be in the value representation".
+For many types this is likely what we will do anyway (e.g., for `bool` and `!` and `()` and integers), but for references, this choice would mean that *validity of the reference cannot depend on what memory looks like*---so "dereferencable" and "points to valid data" cannot be part of the validity invariant for references.
+The reason this is so elegant is that, as we have seen above, a "typed copy" already very naturally is UB when the memory that is copied is not a valid representation of `T`.
+This means we do not even need a special clause in our specification for the validity invariant---in fact, the term does not even have to appear in the specification---as everything juts falls out of how a "typed copy" applies the value representation twice.
+
+Justifying the `dereferencable` LLVM attribute is, in this case, left to the aliasing model (e.g. [Stacked Borrows]), just like the `noalias` attribute.
+
+[Stacked Borrows]: stacked-borrows.md