New Section - Type Layout

src/SUMMARY.md

@@ -61,6 +61,7 @@
 - [Type system](type-system.md)
     - [Types](types.md)
     - [Dynamically Sized Types](dynamically-sized-types.md)
+    - [Type layout](type-layout.md)
     - [Interior mutability](interior-mutability.md)
     - [Subtyping](subtyping.md)
     - [Type coercions](type-coercions.md)

src/attributes.md

@@ -357,7 +357,7 @@ pub mod m3 {
 }
 ```
 
-### Inline attributes
+### Inline attribute
 
 The inline attribute suggests that the compiler should place a copy of
 the function or static in the caller, rather than generating code to

src/dynamically-sized-types.md

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 Most types have a fixed size that is known at compile time and implement the
 trait [`Sized`][sized]. A type with a size that is known only at run-time is
-called a _dynamically sized type_ (_DST_) or (informally) an unsized type.
+called a _dynamically sized type_ (_DST_) or, informally, an unsized type.
 [Slices] and [trait objects] are two examples of <abbr title="dynamically sized
 types">DSTs</abbr>. Such types can only be used in certain cases:
 

src/glossary.md

@@ -5,6 +5,11 @@
 An ‘abstract syntax tree’, or ‘AST’, is an intermediate representation of
 the structure of the program when the compiler is compiling it.
 
+### Alignment
+
+The *alignment* of a value specifies what addresses are valid to store the value
+at.
+
 ### Arity
 
 Arity refers to the number of arguments a function or operation takes.
@@ -57,6 +62,11 @@ can create such an lvalue without initializing it.
 Prelude, or The Rust Prelude, is a small collection of items - mostly traits - that are
 imported into very module of every crate. The traits in the prelude are pervasive.
 
+### Size
+
+The *size* of a value is the offset in bytes between successive elements in an
+array with that item type including alignment padding.
+
 ### Slice
 
 A slice is dynamically-sized view into a contiguous sequence, written as `[T]`.

src/items/enumerations.md

@@ -4,8 +4,6 @@ An _enumeration_ is a simultaneous definition of a nominal [enumerated type] as
 well as a set of *constructors*, that can be used to create or pattern-match
 values of the corresponding enumerated type.
 
-[enumerated type]: types.html#enumerated-types
-
 Enumerations are declared with the keyword `enum`.
 
 An example of an `enum` item and its use:
@@ -24,7 +22,7 @@ Enumeration constructors can have either named or unnamed fields:
 
 ```rust
 enum Animal {
-    Dog (String, f64),
+    Dog(String, f64),
     Cat { name: String, weight: f64 },
 }
 
@@ -34,36 +32,52 @@ a = Animal::Cat { name: "Spotty".to_string(), weight: 2.7 };
 
 In this example, `Cat` is a _struct-like enum variant_, whereas `Dog` is simply
 called an enum variant. Each enum instance has a _discriminant_ which is an
-integer associated to it that is used to determine which variant it holds.
+integer associated to it that is used to determine which variant it holds. An
+opaque reference to this variant can be obtained with the [`mem::discriminant`]
+function.
 
 ## C-like Enumerations
 
-If there is no data attached to *any* of the variants of an enumeration it is
-called a *c-like enumeration*. If a discriminant isn't specified, they start at
-zero, and add one for each variant, in order. Each enum value is just its
-discriminant which you can specify explicitly:
+If there is no data attached to *any* of the variants of an enumeration and
+there is at least one variant then it is called a *c-like enumeration*.
+
+C-like enumerations can be cast to integer types with the `as` operator by a
+[numeric cast]. The enumeration can optionaly specify which integer each
+discriminant gets by following the variant name with `=` and then an integer
+literal. If the first variant in the declaration is unspecified, then it is set
+to zero. For every unspecified discriminant, it is set to one higher than the
+previous variant in the declaration.
 
 ```rust
 enum Foo {
     Bar,            // 0
-    Baz = 123,
+    Baz = 123,      // 123
     Quux,           // 124
 }
+
+let baz_discriminant = Foo::Baz as u32;
+assert_eq!(baz_discriminant, 123u32);
 ```
 
-The right hand side of the specification is interpreted as an `isize` value,
-but the compiler is allowed to use a smaller type in the actual memory layout.
-The [`repr` attribute] can be added in order to change the type of the right
-hand side and specify the memory layout.
+Under the [default representation], the specified discriminant is interpreted as
+an `isize` value although the compiler is allowed to use a smaller type in the
+actual memory layout. The size and thus acceptable values can be changed by
+using a [primitive representation] or the [`C` representation].
+
+It is an error when either two variants share the same discriminant or for an
+unspecified discriminant, the previous discriminant is the maximum value for the
+size of the discriminant. <!-- Need examples here. -->
 
-[`repr` attribute]: attributes.html#ffi-attributes
+## Zero-variant Enumerations
 
-You can also cast a c-like enum to get its discriminant:
+Enums with zero variants are known as *zero-variant enumerations*. As they have
+no valid values, they cannot be instantiated.
 
 ```rust
-# enum Foo { Baz = 123 }
-let x = Foo::Baz as u32; // x is now 123u32
+enum ZeroVariants {}
 ```
 
-This only works as long as none of the variants have data attached. If it were
-`Baz(i32)`, this is disallowed.
+[enumerated type]: types.html#enumerated-types
+[`mem::discriminant`]: std/mem/fn.discriminant.html
+[numeric cast]: expressions/operator-expr.html#semantics
+[`repr` attribute]: attributes.html#ffi-attributes

src/type-layout.md

@@ -0,0 +1,246 @@
+# Type Layout
+
+The layout of a type is the way the size, alignment, and the offsets of any
+fields and discriminants for the values of that type.
+
+**PR NOTE: This doesn't include valid values. E.g. `bool` and `i8` have the
+same layout under this definition. Nor does it include calling convention
+differences, so `u8` and `#[repr(C)] struct S { f: u8 }` have the same layout,
+as does `*T` and `&T`. I'm not sure if it should or not.**
+
+While specific releases of the compiler will have the same layout for types,
+there is a lot of room for new versions of the compiler to do different things.
+Instead of trying to document exactly what is done, we only document what is
+guaranteed today.
+
+## Size and Alignment
+
+All values have an alignment and size.
+
+The *alignment* of a value specifies what addresses are valid to store the value
+at. A value of alignment `n` must only be stored at an address that is a
+multiple of n. For example, a value with an alignment of 2 must be stored at an
+even address, while a value with an alignment of 1 can be stored at any address.
+Alignment is measured in bytes, and must be at least 1, and always a power of 2.
+The alignment of a value can be checked with the [`align_of_val`] function.
+
+The *size* of a value is the offset in bytes between successive elements in an
+array with that item type including alignment padding. The size of a value is
+always a multiple of its alignment. The size of a value can be checked with the
+[`size_of_val`] function.
+
+Types where all values have the same size and alignment known at compile time
+implement the [`Sized`] trait and can be checked with the [`size_of`] and
+[`align_of`] functions. Types that are not [`Sized`] are known as [dynamically
+sized types]. Since all values of a `Sized` type share the same size and
+alignment, we refer to those shared values as the size of the type and the
+alignment of the type respectively.
+
+## Primitive Data Layout
+
+The size of most primitives is given in this table.
+
+Type | `size_of::\<Type>()`
+- | - | -
+bool | 1
+u8 | 1
+u16 | 2
+u32 | 4
+u64 | 8
+i8 | 1
+i16 | 2
+i32 | 4 
+i64 | 8
+f32 | 4
+f64 | 8
+char | 4
+
+`usize` and `isize` have a size big enough to contain every address on the
+target platform. For example, on a 32 bit target, this is 4 bytes and on a 64
+bit target, this is 8 bytes.
+
+Most primitives are generally aligned to their size, although this is
+platform-specific behavior. In particular, on x86 u64 and f64 may be only
+aligned to 32 bits.
+
+## Pointers and References Layout
+
+Pointers and references have the same layout. Mutability of the pointer or
+reference does not change the layout.
+
+Pointers to sized types have the same size and alignment as `usize`.
+
+Pointers to unsized types are sized. The size and alignemnt is guaranteed to be
+at least equal to the size and alignment of a pointer.
+
+> Note: Though you should not rely on this, all pointers to <abbr
+> title="Dynamically Sized Types">DSTs</abbr> are currently twice the size of
+> the size of `usize` and have the same alignment.
+
+## Array Layout
+
+Arrays are laid out so that the `nth` element of the array is offset from the
+start of the array by `n * the size of the type` bytes. An array of `[T; n]`
+has a size of `size_of::<T>() * n` and the same alignment of `T`.
+
+## Slice Layout
+
+Slices have the same layout as the section of the array they slice.
+
+## Tuple Layout
+
+Tuples do not have any guarantes about their layout.
+
+The exception to this is the unit tuple (`()`) which is guaranteed as a
+zero-sized type to have a size of 0 and an alignment of 1.
+
+## Trait Object Layout
+
+Trait objects have the same layout as the value the trait object is of.
+
+## Closure Layout
+
+Closures have no layout guarantees.
+
+## Representations
+
+All **FIXME** types have a *representation* that specifies what the layout
+is for the type.
+
+Note: The representation does not depend upon the type's fields or generic
+parameters.
+
+The possible representations for a type are the default representation, `C`, the
+primitive representations, and `packed`. Multiple representations can be applied
+to a single type.
+
+The representation of a type can be changed by applying the [`repr` attribute]
+to it. The following example shows a struct with a `C` representation.
+
+```
+#[repr(C)]
+struct ThreeInts {
+    first: i16,
+    second: i8,
+    third: i32
+}
+```
+
+The representation of a type does not change the layout of its fields. For
+example, a struct with a `C` representation that contains a struct `Inner` with
+the default representation will not change the layout of Inner.
+
+### The Default Representation
+
+Nominal types without a `repr` attribute have the default representation.
+Informally, this representation is also called the `rust` representation.
+
+There are no guarantees of data layout made by this representation.
+
+### The `C` Representation
+
+The `C` representation is designed for creating types that are interoptable with
+the C Language and soundly performing operations that rely on data layout such
+as reinterpreting values as a different type.
+
+This representation can be applied to structs, unions, and enums.
+
+#### \#[repr(C)] Structs
+
+The alignment of the struct is the alignment of the most-aligned field in it.
+
+The size and offset of fields is determine by the following algorithm.
+
+Start with a current offset of 0 bytes.
+
+For each field in declaration order in the struct, first determine the size and
+alignment of the field. If the current offset is not a multiple of the field's
+alignment, then add padding bytes increasing the current offset until the
+current offset is a multiple of the field's alignment. The offset for the field
+is what the current offset is now. Then increase the current offset by the size
+of the field.
+
+Finally, the size of the struct is the current offset rounded up to the nearest
+multiple of the struct's alignment. 
+
+> Note: You can have zero-sized structs from this algorithm. This differs from
+> C where structs without data still have a size of one byte.
+
+#### \#[repr(C)] Unions
+
+A [union] declared with `#[repr(C)]` will have the same size and alignment as an
+equivalent C union declaration in the C language for the target platform.
+Usually, a union would have the maximum size of the maximum size of all of its
+fields, and the maximum alignment of the maximum alignment of all of its fields.
+These maximums may come from different fields.
+
+```
+#[repr(C)]
+union Union {
+    f1: u16,
+    f2: [u8; 4],
+}
+
+assert_eq!(std::mem::size_of<Union>(), 4);  // From f2
+assert_eq!(std::mem::align_of<Union>(), 2); // From f1
+```
+
+#### \#[repr(C)] Enums
+
+For [C-like enumerations], the `C` representation has the size and alignment of
+the default `enum` size and alignment for the target platform's C ABI.
+
+> Note: The enum representation in C is implementation defined, so this is
+> really a "best guess". In particular, this may be incorrect when the C code
+> of interest is compiled with certain flags.
+
+> Warning: There are crucial differences between an `enum` in the C language and
+> Rust's C-like enumerations with this representation. An `enum` in  C is
+> mostly a `typedef` plus some named constants; in other words, an object of an
+> `enum` type can hold any integer value. For example, this is often used for
+> bitflags in `C`. In contrast, Rust’s C-like enumerations can only legally hold
+> the discrimnant values, everything else is undefined behaviour. Therefore, 
+> using a C-like enumeration in FFI to model a C `enum` is often wrong.
+
+It is an error for [zero-variant enumerations] to have the `C` representation.
+
+For all other enumerations, the layout is unspecified.
+
+### Primitive representations
+
+The *primitive representations* are the representations with the same names as
+the primitive integer types. That is: `u8`, `u16`, `u32`, `u64`, `usize`, `i8`,
+`i16`, `i32`, `i64`, and `isize`.
+
+Primitive representations can only be applied to enumerations.
+
+For [C-like enumerations], they set the size and alignment to be the same as the
+primitive type of the same name. For example, a C-like enumeration with a `u8`
+representation can only have discriminants between 0 and 255 inclusive.
+
+It is an error for [zero-variant enumerations] to have a primitive
+representation.
+
+For all other enumerations, the layout is unspecified.
+
+### The `packed` Representation
+
+The `packed` representation can only be used on `struct`s and `union`s.
+
+It modifies the representation (either the default or `C`) by removing any
+padding bytes and forcing the alignment of the type to `1`.
+
+> Warning: Dereferencing an unaligned pointer is [undefined behaviour] and is
+> possible to [safely create unaligned pointers to `packed` fields][27060].
+> Like all ways to create undefined behavior in safe Rust, this is a bug.
+
+[`align_of_val`]: ../std/mem/fn.align_of_val.html
+[`size_of_val`]: ../std/mem/fn.size_of_val.html
+[`align_of`]: ../std/mem/fn.align_of.html
+[`size_of`]: ../std/mem/fn.size_of.html
+[`Sized`]: ../std/marker/trait.Sized.html
+[dynamically sized types]: dynamically-sized-types.html
+[C-like enumerations]: items/enumerations.html#c-like-enumerations
+[zero-variant enumerations]: items/enumerations.html#zero-variant-enumerations
+[undefined behavior]: behavior-considered-undefined.html
+[27060]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/27060

src/types.md

@@ -146,8 +146,8 @@ let slice: &[i32] = &boxed_array[..];
 All elements of arrays and slices are always initialized, and access to an
 array or slice is always bounds-checked in safe methods and operators.
 
-The [`Vec<T>`] standard library type provides a heap allocated resizable array
-type.
+> Note: The [`Vec<T>`] standard library type provides a heap allocated resizable
+> array type.
 
 [dynamically sized type]: dynamically-sized-types.html
 [`Vec<T>`]: ../std/vec/struct.Vec.html