-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 0
/
Radioactive.html
63 lines (58 loc) · 10.2 KB
/
Radioactive.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>Radioactive Waste Management</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="./css/content-styles.css">
<!-- font links -->
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com">
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com" crossorigin>
<link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Dancing+Script&display=swap" rel="stylesheet">
</head>
<body>
<div class="container">
<section id="title">
<h1 class="title-heading">.EduWaste</h1>
<button class="butn title-butn" onclick="location.href='./landing.html'">Back to Topics</button>
</section>
<h1 class="main-heading">Radioactive Waste Management</h1>
<section id="video-container">
<iframe width="700" height="394" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4aUODXeAM-k" title="YouTube video player" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" allowfullscreen></iframe>
</section>
<section id="content-container">
<h2 class="sub-heading">Introduction:</h2>
<p class="content-text">Radioactive wastes are generated during various operations of the nuclear fuel cycle as well as production and use of radionuclide for various societal applications. The activities like mining and processing of uranium ore, fabrication of nuclear fuel, generation of power in nuclear reactor, processing of spent nuclear fuel, management of radioactive waste, production and use of radionuclide for various industrial and medical applications, research associating with radioactive material etc. generates the different types of radioactive waste. Radioactive waste can be in gas, liquid or solid form, and its level of radioactivity can vary. The waste can remain radioactive for a few hours or several months or even hundreds of thousands of years. </p>
<h2 class="sub-heading">Classification of Radioactive Wastes</h2>
<p class="content-text">
<ul>
<li><strong>Low level waste (LLW):</strong> Waste that is above clearance levels, but with limited amounts of long lived radionuclides. Such waste requires robust isolation and containment for periods of up to a few hundred years and is suitable for disposal in engineered near surface facilities. This class covers a very broad range of waste. LLW may include short lived radionuclides at higher levels of activity concentration, and also long lived radionuclides, but only at relatively low levels of activity concentration.</li><br>
<li><strong>Intermediate level waste (ILW):</strong> Waste that because of its content, particularly of long lived radionuclides, requires a greater degree of containment and isolation that provided by near surface disposal. However, ILW needs no provision, or only limited provision, for heat dissipation during its storage and disposal. ILW may contain long lived radionuclides, in particular, alpha emitting radionuclides that will not decay to a level of activity concentration acceptable for near surface disposal during the time for which institutional controls can be relied upon. Therefore, waste in this class requires disposal at greater depths, of the order of tens of meters to a few hundred meters.</li><br>
<li><strong>High level waste (HLW):</strong> Waste with levels of activity concentration high enough to generate significant quantities of heat by the radioactive decay process or waste with large amounts of long lived radionuclides that need to be considered in the design of a disposal facility for such waste. Disposal in deep, stable geological formations usually several hundred meters or more below the surface is generally recognized option for disposal of HLW</li>
</ul></p>
<h2 class="sub-heading">MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES: </h2>
<p class="content-text">Utmost emphasis is given to waste minimization, and volume reduction in the choice of processes and technologies adopted in radioactive waste management plants. As a waste management philosophy, no waste in any physical form is released / disposed to the environment unless the same is cleared, exempted or excluded from regulations. A comprehensive radioactive waste management is established taking into account the operational capability for the management of radioactive waste and an independent regulatory capability for its overview.
In consideration to the primary objective of protecting human health, environment and future generations, the overall philosophy for safe management of radioactive wastes in India, is based on the concept of</p>
<p class="content-text"><ul style="margin-left: 200px;"><li>Delay and Delay</li><li>Dilute and Disperse</li><li>Concentrate and Contain</li><li>Recycle and Reuse</li></ul></p>
<p class="content-text">Effective management involves segregation, characterization, handling, treatment, conditioning and monitoring prior to final disposal.</p>
<h2 class="sub-heading">Safety Guideance:</h2>
<p class="content-text">Safety is a top priority in radioactive waste management, because of this, the purpose of this section is to present a brief guideline of recommended procedures for working with radioactive wastes. The safety aspects and environmental protection which need to be considered in the handling and processing of radioactive wastes are mainly associated with: flammability, toxicity, explosion and radioactivity.</p>
<p class="content-text">The wastes must be adequately characterized; chemically, physically, and radiological as a precursor to waste management. The composition of waste should be known with sufficient accuracy that nuclear and conventional safety and environmental protection are not compromised. Toxic or hazardous constituents should be characterized by analytical means or from knowledge of the processes, so that hazards associated with treatment methods of waste can be identified. The reachability of radionuclides, toxic materials and the generation rates for volatile organic compounds or powders and other hazardous gases should be determined. It is important to know the chemical stability of radioactive waste: flammability, corrosively, reactivity, pyrophoricity, rapid oxidation promotion, biodegradability and the chemically incompatible waste forms should be carefully controlled.</p>
<h2 class="sub-heading">Treatment</h2>
<p class="content-text">Treatment involves operations intended to change waste streams’ characteristics to improve safety or economy. Treatment techniques may involve compaction to reduce volume, filtration or ion exchange to remove radionuclide content, or precipitation to induce changes in composition.</p>
<p class="content-text">Identification of items should be established and documented on the basis of the importance to safety and environmental protection or waste isolation. Records shall specify: (a) the origin of the waste and the processes that generated it; (b) pretreatment of the waste; (c) clearance of the waste; (d) discharge of the waste; (e) characterization of the waste; (f) treatment of the waste; (g) design of the containers and/or packages and of equipment, structures, systems and components for the pretreatment, treatment of the waste.</p>
<p class="content-text">Conditioning is undertaken to change waste into a form that is suitable for safe handling, transportation, storage, and disposal. This step typically involves the immobilisation of waste in containers. Liquid LLW and ILW are typically solidified in cement, whilst HLW is calcined/dried then vitrified in a glass matrix. Immobilized waste will be placed in a container suitable for its characteristics.</p>
<h2 class="sub-heading">Disposal</h2>
<p class="content-text">Most low-level radioactive waste (LLW) is typically sent to land-based disposal immediately following its packaging for long-term management. This means that for the majority (~90% by volume) of all of the waste types produced by nuclear technologies, a satisfactory disposal means has been developed and is being implemented around the world.</p>
<p class="content-text">For used fuel designated as high-level radioactive waste (HLW), the first step is storage to allow decay of radioactivity and heat, making handling much safer. Storage of used fuel may be in ponds or dry casks, either at reactor sites or centrally. Beyond storage, many options have been investigated which seek to provide publicly acceptable, safe, and environmentally sound solutions to the final management of radioactive waste. The most widely favoured solution is deep geological disposal. The focus is on how and where to construct such facilities.</p>
<p class="content-text">Used fuel that is not intended for direct disposal may instead be reprocessed in order to recycle the uranium and plutonium it contains. Some separated liquid HLW arises during reprocessing; this is vitrified in glass and stored pending final disposal.</p>
<p class="content-text">Intermediate-level radioactive waste (ILW) that contains long-lived radioisotopes is also stored pending disposal in a geological repository. In the USA, defence-related transuranic (TRU) waste – which has similar levels of radioactivity to some ILW – is disposed of in the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) deep geological repository in New Mexico. A number of countries dispose of ILW containing short-lived radioisotopes in near-surface disposal facilities, as used for LLW disposal.</p>
<p class="content-text">Disposal of waste takes place when there is no further foreseeable use for it, and in the case of HLW, when radioactivity has decayed to relatively low levels after about 40-50 years.</p>
</section>
<div style="margin: 15% 0 7%; text-align: center;">
<a href="Radioactive-Quiz.html"><button class="butn quiz-butn">Test Your Knowledge!</button></a>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>