diff --git a/app/vulkan.go b/app/vulkan.go
index 91d345f59..037af9c2b 100644
--- a/app/vulkan.go
+++ b/app/vulkan.go
@@ -17,7 +17,6 @@ import (
 type vkContext struct {
 	physDev    vk.PhysicalDevice
 	inst       vk.Instance
-	surf       vk.Surface
 	dev        vk.Device
 	queueFam   int
 	queue      vk.Queue
@@ -35,36 +34,30 @@ type vkContext struct {
 func newVulkanContext(inst vk.Instance, surf vk.Surface) (*vkContext, error) {
 	physDev, qFam, err := vk.ChoosePhysicalDevice(inst, surf)
 	if err != nil {
-		vk.DestroySurface(inst, surf)
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	dev, err := vk.CreateDeviceAndQueue(physDev, qFam, "VK_KHR_swapchain")
 	if err != nil {
-		vk.DestroySurface(inst, surf)
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	if err != nil {
-		vk.DestroySurface(inst, surf)
 		vk.DestroyDevice(dev)
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	acquireSem, err := vk.CreateSemaphore(dev)
 	if err != nil {
-		vk.DestroySurface(inst, surf)
 		vk.DestroyDevice(dev)
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	presentSem, err := vk.CreateSemaphore(dev)
 	if err != nil {
 		vk.DestroySemaphore(dev, acquireSem)
-		vk.DestroySurface(inst, surf)
 		vk.DestroyDevice(dev)
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	c := &vkContext{
 		physDev:    physDev,
 		inst:       inst,
-		surf:       surf,
 		dev:        dev,
 		queueFam:   qFam,
 		queue:      vk.GetDeviceQueue(dev, qFam, 0),
@@ -120,7 +113,7 @@ func mapErr(err error) error {
 func (c *vkContext) release() {
 	vk.DeviceWaitIdle(c.dev)
 
-	c.destroySurface()
+	c.destroySwapchain()
 	vk.DestroySemaphore(c.dev, c.acquireSem)
 	vk.DestroySemaphore(c.dev, c.presentSem)
 	vk.DestroyDevice(c.dev)
@@ -142,7 +135,7 @@ func (c *vkContext) destroyImageViews() {
 	c.views = nil
 }
 
-func (c *vkContext) destroySurface() {
+func (c *vkContext) destroySwapchain() {
 	vk.DeviceWaitIdle(c.dev)
 
 	c.destroyImageViews()
@@ -150,24 +143,13 @@ func (c *vkContext) destroySurface() {
 		vk.DestroySwapchain(c.dev, c.swchain)
 		c.swchain = 0
 	}
-	if c.surf != 0 {
-		vk.DestroySurface(c.inst, c.surf)
-		c.surf = 0
-	}
-}
-
-func (c *vkContext) setSurface(surf vk.Surface) {
-	if c.surf != 0 {
-		panic("another surface is active")
-	}
-	c.surf = surf
 }
 
-func (c *vkContext) refresh(width, height int) error {
+func (c *vkContext) refresh(surf vk.Surface, width, height int) error {
 	vk.DeviceWaitIdle(c.dev)
 
 	c.destroyImageViews()
-	swchain, imgs, format, err := vk.CreateSwapchain(c.physDev, c.dev, c.surf, width, height, c.swchain)
+	swchain, imgs, format, err := vk.CreateSwapchain(c.physDev, c.dev, surf, width, height, c.swchain)
 	if c.swchain != 0 {
 		vk.DestroySwapchain(c.dev, c.swchain)
 		c.swchain = 0
diff --git a/app/vulkan_android.go b/app/vulkan_android.go
index a3f54fe6e..48df013f1 100644
--- a/app/vulkan_android.go
+++ b/app/vulkan_android.go
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ import (
 type wlVkContext struct {
 	win  *window
 	inst vk.Instance
+	surf vk.Surface
 	ctx  *vkContext
 }
 
@@ -39,6 +40,7 @@ func init() {
 		c := &wlVkContext{
 			win:  w,
 			inst: inst,
+			surf: surf,
 			ctx:  ctx,
 		}
 		return c, nil
@@ -55,6 +57,7 @@ func (c *wlVkContext) API() gpu.API {
 
 func (c *wlVkContext) Release() {
 	c.ctx.release()
+	vk.DestroySurface(c.inst, c.surf)
 	vk.DestroyInstance(c.inst)
 	*c = wlVkContext{}
 }
@@ -71,11 +74,13 @@ func (c *wlVkContext) Unlock() {}
 
 func (c *wlVkContext) Refresh() error {
 	win, w, h := c.win.nativeWindow()
-	c.ctx.destroySurface()
+	if c.surf != 0 {
+		c.ctx.destroySwapchain()
+		vk.DestroySurface(c.inst, c.surf)
+	}
 	surf, err := vk.CreateAndroidSurface(c.inst, unsafe.Pointer(win))
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	c.ctx.setSurface(surf)
-	return c.ctx.refresh(w, h)
+	return c.ctx.refresh(surf, w, h)
 }
diff --git a/app/vulkan_wayland.go b/app/vulkan_wayland.go
index c142e99c5..7bf066280 100644
--- a/app/vulkan_wayland.go
+++ b/app/vulkan_wayland.go
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ import (
 type wlVkContext struct {
 	win  *window
 	inst vk.Instance
+	surf vk.Surface
 	ctx  *vkContext
 }
 
@@ -42,6 +43,7 @@ func init() {
 		c := &wlVkContext{
 			win:  w,
 			inst: inst,
+			surf: surf,
 			ctx:  ctx,
 		}
 		return c, nil
@@ -58,6 +60,7 @@ func (c *wlVkContext) API() gpu.API {
 
 func (c *wlVkContext) Release() {
 	c.ctx.release()
+	vk.DestroySurface(c.inst, c.surf)
 	vk.DestroyInstance(c.inst)
 	*c = wlVkContext{}
 }
@@ -74,5 +77,5 @@ func (c *wlVkContext) Unlock() {}
 
 func (c *wlVkContext) Refresh() error {
 	_, w, h := c.win.surface()
-	return c.ctx.refresh(w, h)
+	return c.ctx.refresh(c.surf, w, h)
 }
diff --git a/app/vulkan_x11.go b/app/vulkan_x11.go
index c1a5d75c3..cf9777401 100644
--- a/app/vulkan_x11.go
+++ b/app/vulkan_x11.go
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ import (
 type x11VkContext struct {
 	win  *x11Window
 	inst vk.Instance
+	surf vk.Surface
 	ctx  *vkContext
 }
 
@@ -42,6 +43,7 @@ func init() {
 		c := &x11VkContext{
 			win:  w,
 			inst: inst,
+			surf: surf,
 			ctx:  ctx,
 		}
 		return c, nil
@@ -58,6 +60,7 @@ func (c *x11VkContext) API() gpu.API {
 
 func (c *x11VkContext) Release() {
 	c.ctx.release()
+	vk.DestroySurface(c.inst, c.surf)
 	vk.DestroyInstance(c.inst)
 	*c = x11VkContext{}
 }
@@ -74,5 +77,5 @@ func (c *x11VkContext) Unlock() {}
 
 func (c *x11VkContext) Refresh() error {
 	_, w, h := c.win.window()
-	return c.ctx.refresh(w, h)
+	return c.ctx.refresh(c.surf, w, h)
 }
diff --git a/internal/vk/vulkan.go b/internal/vk/vulkan.go
index a6efbcb01..6ef59317a 100644
--- a/internal/vk/vulkan.go
+++ b/internal/vk/vulkan.go
@@ -816,12 +816,12 @@ func CreateInstance(exts ...string) (Instance, error) {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	inf := C.VkInstanceCreateInfo{
-		sType:                 C.VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_INSTANCE_CREATE_INFO,
-		enabledExtensionCount: C.uint32_t(len(exts)),
+		sType: C.VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_INSTANCE_CREATE_INFO,
 	}
 	if len(exts) > 0 {
 		cexts := mallocCStringArr(exts)
 		defer freeCStringArr(cexts)
+		inf.enabledExtensionCount = C.uint32_t(len(exts))
 		inf.ppEnabledExtensionNames = &cexts[0]
 	}
 	var inst Instance
@@ -861,17 +861,25 @@ func GetPhysicalDeviceQueueFamilyProperties(pd PhysicalDevice) []QueueFamilyProp
 	return queues
 }
 
-func ChoosePhysicalDevice(inst Instance, surf Surface) (PhysicalDevice, int, error) {
+func EnumeratePhysicalDevices(inst Instance) ([]PhysicalDevice, error) {
 	var count C.uint32_t
 	if err := vkErr(C.vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices(funcs.vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices, inst, &count, nil)); err != nil {
-		return nil, 0, fmt.Errorf("vulkan: vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices: %w", err)
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("vulkan: vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices: %w", err)
 	}
 	if count == 0 {
-		return nil, 0, errors.New("vulkan: no devices available")
+		return nil, nil
 	}
 	devs := make([]C.VkPhysicalDevice, count)
 	if err := vkErr(C.vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices(funcs.vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices, inst, &count, &devs[0])); err != nil {
-		return nil, 0, fmt.Errorf("vulkan: vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices: %w", err)
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("vulkan: vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices: %w", err)
+	}
+	return devs, nil
+}
+
+func ChoosePhysicalDevice(inst Instance, surf Surface) (PhysicalDevice, int, error) {
+	devs, err := EnumeratePhysicalDevices(inst)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, 0, err
 	}
 	for _, pd := range devs {
 		const caps = C.VK_QUEUE_GRAPHICS_BIT | C.VK_QUEUE_COMPUTE_BIT