From ce0fc7a7178d404337d85719d4e2b5184be7d726 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Roo Code <roomote@roocode.com>
Date: Mon, 1 Sep 2025 22:54:51 +0000
Subject: [PATCH 1/8] fix: add API key validation for non-ASCII characters in
 OpenAI-compatible providers

- Created shared validation utility to check for non-ASCII characters in API keys
- Added validation to all OpenAI-compatible providers to prevent ByteString conversion errors
- Provides clear error messages when invalid characters are detected
- Fixes issue #7483 where non-ASCII characters in API keys caused cryptic errors
---
 .../base-openai-compatible-provider.ts        |  4 +
 src/api/providers/huggingface.ts              |  4 +
 src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts                |  7 +-
 src/api/providers/ollama.ts                   |  4 +
 src/api/providers/openai-native.ts            |  5 +
 src/api/providers/openai.ts                   |  4 +
 src/api/providers/openrouter.ts               |  4 +
 src/api/providers/requesty.ts                 |  8 +-
 src/api/providers/router-provider.ts          |  4 +
 .../__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts      | 93 +++++++++++++++++++
 src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts | 52 +++++++++++
 src/api/providers/xai.ts                      | 20 +++-
 12 files changed, 202 insertions(+), 7 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 src/api/providers/utils/__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts
 create mode 100644 src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts

diff --git a/src/api/providers/base-openai-compatible-provider.ts b/src/api/providers/base-openai-compatible-provider.ts
index d079e22a1c43..0c7828a71a92 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/base-openai-compatible-provider.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/base-openai-compatible-provider.ts
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ import { convertToOpenAiMessages } from "../transform/openai-format"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 type BaseOpenAiCompatibleProviderOptions<ModelName extends string> = ApiHandlerOptions & {
 	providerName: string
@@ -55,6 +56,9 @@ export abstract class BaseOpenAiCompatibleProvider<ModelName extends string>
 			throw new Error("API key is required")
 		}
 
+		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(this.options.apiKey, this.providerName)
+
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL,
 			apiKey: this.options.apiKey,
diff --git a/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts b/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
index aa158654c9af..95a9b7119ae9 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from ".
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import { getHuggingFaceModels, getCachedHuggingFaceModels } from "./fetchers/huggingface"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler {
 	private client: OpenAI
@@ -22,6 +23,9 @@ export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletion
 			throw new Error("Hugging Face API key is required")
 		}
 
+		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(this.options.huggingFaceApiKey, "HuggingFace")
+
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL: "https://router.huggingface.co/v1",
 			apiKey: this.options.huggingFaceApiKey,
diff --git a/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts b/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts
index f3af46d1cec0..23d98616d8d2 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { getModels, getModelsFromCache } from "./fetchers/modelCache"
 import { getApiRequestTimeout } from "./utils/timeout-config"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 export class LmStudioHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler {
 	protected options: ApiHandlerOptions
@@ -24,9 +25,13 @@ export class LmStudioHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 		super()
 		this.options = options
 
+		// LM Studio uses "noop" as a placeholder API key, but we should still validate if a real key is provided
+		const apiKey = "noop"
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "LM Studio")
+
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL: (this.options.lmStudioBaseUrl || "http://localhost:1234") + "/v1",
-			apiKey: "noop",
+			apiKey: apiKey,
 			timeout: getApiRequestTimeout(),
 		})
 	}
diff --git a/src/api/providers/ollama.ts b/src/api/providers/ollama.ts
index 75895908e9cf..ef920d35ce06 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/ollama.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/ollama.ts
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ import { ApiStream } from "../transform/stream"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { getApiRequestTimeout } from "./utils/timeout-config"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 type CompletionUsage = OpenAI.Chat.Completions.ChatCompletionChunk["usage"]
 
@@ -29,6 +30,9 @@ export class OllamaHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 		// Otherwise use "ollama" as a placeholder for local instances
 		const apiKey = this.options.ollamaApiKey || "ollama"
 
+		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "Ollama")
+
 		const headers: Record<string, string> = {}
 		if (this.options.ollamaApiKey) {
 			headers["Authorization"] = `Bearer ${this.options.ollamaApiKey}`
diff --git a/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts b/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
index c884091c02a6..24b3d82fd2c3 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ import { getModelParams } from "../transform/model-params"
 
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 export type OpenAiNativeModel = ReturnType<OpenAiNativeHandler["getModel"]>
 
@@ -59,6 +60,10 @@ export class OpenAiNativeHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletio
 			this.options.enableGpt5ReasoningSummary = true
 		}
 		const apiKey = this.options.openAiNativeApiKey ?? "not-provided"
+
+		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "OpenAI Native")
+
 		this.client = new OpenAI({ baseURL: this.options.openAiNativeBaseUrl, apiKey })
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/api/providers/openai.ts b/src/api/providers/openai.ts
index 36158d770c17..a50b8324c26c 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openai.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openai.ts
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { getApiRequestTimeout } from "./utils/timeout-config"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 // TODO: Rename this to OpenAICompatibleHandler. Also, I think the
 // `OpenAINativeHandler` can subclass from this, since it's obviously
@@ -42,6 +43,9 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 		const urlHost = this._getUrlHost(this.options.openAiBaseUrl)
 		const isAzureOpenAi = urlHost === "azure.com" || urlHost.endsWith(".azure.com") || options.openAiUseAzure
 
+		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "OpenAI")
+
 		const headers = {
 			...DEFAULT_HEADERS,
 			...(this.options.openAiHeaders || {}),
diff --git a/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts b/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts
index 208ba563c644..635c5950d60f 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@ import { getModelEndpoints } from "./fetchers/modelEndpointCache"
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler } from "../index"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 // Image generation types
 interface ImageGenerationResponse {
@@ -93,6 +94,9 @@ export class OpenRouterHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionH
 		const baseURL = this.options.openRouterBaseUrl || "https://openrouter.ai/api/v1"
 		const apiKey = this.options.openRouterApiKey ?? "not-provided"
 
+		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "OpenRouter")
+
 		this.client = new OpenAI({ baseURL, apiKey, defaultHeaders: DEFAULT_HEADERS })
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/api/providers/requesty.ts b/src/api/providers/requesty.ts
index 0661cebe0989..388f97e0ca97 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/requesty.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/requesty.ts
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ import { getModels } from "./fetchers/modelCache"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { toRequestyServiceUrl } from "../../shared/utils/requesty"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 // Requesty usage includes an extra field for Anthropic use cases.
 // Safely cast the prompt token details section to the appropriate structure.
@@ -49,9 +50,14 @@ export class RequestyHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 		this.options = options
 		this.baseURL = toRequestyServiceUrl(options.requestyBaseUrl)
 
+		const apiKey = this.options.requestyApiKey ?? "not-provided"
+
+		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "Requesty")
+
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL: this.baseURL,
-			apiKey: this.options.requestyApiKey ?? "not-provided",
+			apiKey: apiKey,
 			defaultHeaders: DEFAULT_HEADERS,
 		})
 	}
diff --git a/src/api/providers/router-provider.ts b/src/api/providers/router-provider.ts
index 25e9a11e1b2c..ace206353f29 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/router-provider.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/router-provider.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import { getModels } from "./fetchers/modelCache"
 
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 type RouterProviderOptions = {
 	name: RouterName
@@ -45,6 +46,9 @@ export abstract class RouterProvider extends BaseProvider {
 		this.defaultModelId = defaultModelId
 		this.defaultModelInfo = defaultModelInfo
 
+		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, name)
+
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL,
 			apiKey,
diff --git a/src/api/providers/utils/__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts b/src/api/providers/utils/__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..b3906339786a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/api/providers/utils/__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+import { describe, it, expect } from "vitest"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString, validateApiKeyForAscii } from "../api-key-validation"
+
+describe("API Key Validation", () => {
+	describe("validateApiKeyForByteString", () => {
+		it("should accept valid ASCII characters", () => {
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("abc123XYZ", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("test-api-key_123", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("!@#$%^&*()", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+		})
+
+		it("should accept extended ASCII characters (128-255)", () => {
+			// Extended ASCII characters like ñ (241), ü (252)
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("test\xF1\xFC", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("key\xFF", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+		})
+
+		it("should reject characters above 255", () => {
+			// Chinese character 中 (20013)
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("test中key", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
+				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 5",
+			)
+
+			// Emoji 😀 (128512)
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("key😀", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
+				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4",
+			)
+
+			// Korean character 한 (54620)
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("한글key", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
+				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 1",
+			)
+		})
+
+		it("should handle undefined and empty keys", () => {
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString(undefined, "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+		})
+
+		it("should provide clear error messages", () => {
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("abc中def", "DeepSeek")).toThrow(
+				"Invalid DeepSeek API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4. " +
+					"API keys must contain only ASCII characters (character codes 0-255). " +
+					"Please check your API key configuration.",
+			)
+		})
+	})
+
+	describe("validateApiKeyForAscii", () => {
+		it("should accept standard ASCII characters (0-127)", () => {
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("abc123XYZ", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("test-api-key_123", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("!@#$%^&*()", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+		})
+
+		it("should reject extended ASCII characters (128-255)", () => {
+			// Extended ASCII character ñ (241)
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("test\xF1key", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
+				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 5",
+			)
+
+			// Extended ASCII character ü (252)
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("key\xFC", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
+				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4",
+			)
+		})
+
+		it("should reject Unicode characters", () => {
+			// Chinese character 中 (20013)
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("test中key", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
+				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 5",
+			)
+
+			// Emoji 😀 (128512)
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("key😀", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
+				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4",
+			)
+		})
+
+		it("should handle undefined and empty keys", () => {
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii(undefined, "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
+		})
+
+		it("should provide clear error messages", () => {
+			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("abc\xF1def", "OpenAI")).toThrow(
+				"Invalid OpenAI API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4. " +
+					"API keys must contain only standard ASCII characters (character codes 0-127). " +
+					"Please check your API key configuration.",
+			)
+		})
+	})
+})
diff --git a/src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts b/src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..af0f794278e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+/**
+ * Validates that an API key contains only valid ByteString characters (0-255).
+ * The OpenAI client library requires API keys to be convertible to ByteString format,
+ * which only supports characters with values 0-255.
+ *
+ * @param apiKey - The API key to validate
+ * @param providerName - The name of the provider for error messaging
+ * @throws Error if the API key contains invalid characters
+ */
+export function validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey: string | undefined, providerName: string): void {
+	if (!apiKey) {
+		return // No validation needed for undefined/empty keys
+	}
+
+	// Check each character in the API key
+	for (let i = 0; i < apiKey.length; i++) {
+		const charCode = apiKey.charCodeAt(i)
+		if (charCode > 255) {
+			throw new Error(
+				`Invalid ${providerName} API key: contains non-ASCII character at position ${i + 1}. ` +
+					`API keys must contain only ASCII characters (character codes 0-255). ` +
+					`Please check your API key configuration.`,
+			)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+/**
+ * Validates that an API key contains only standard ASCII characters (0-127).
+ * This is a stricter validation that only allows standard ASCII characters.
+ *
+ * @param apiKey - The API key to validate
+ * @param providerName - The name of the provider for error messaging
+ * @throws Error if the API key contains non-ASCII characters
+ */
+export function validateApiKeyForAscii(apiKey: string | undefined, providerName: string): void {
+	if (!apiKey) {
+		return // No validation needed for undefined/empty keys
+	}
+
+	// Check each character in the API key
+	for (let i = 0; i < apiKey.length; i++) {
+		const charCode = apiKey.charCodeAt(i)
+		if (charCode > 127) {
+			throw new Error(
+				`Invalid ${providerName} API key: contains non-ASCII character at position ${i + 1}. ` +
+					`API keys must contain only standard ASCII characters (character codes 0-127). ` +
+					`Please check your API key configuration.`,
+			)
+		}
+	}
+}
diff --git a/src/api/providers/xai.ts b/src/api/providers/xai.ts
index 596c9e89b8ca..84f0e12465be 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/xai.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/xai.ts
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ import { getModelParams } from "../transform/model-params"
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
+import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 const XAI_DEFAULT_TEMPERATURE = 0
 
@@ -22,9 +23,15 @@ export class XAIHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler
 	constructor(options: ApiHandlerOptions) {
 		super()
 		this.options = options
+
+		const apiKey = this.options.xaiApiKey ?? "not-provided"
+
+		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
+		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "xAI")
+
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL: "https://api.x.ai/v1",
-			apiKey: this.options.xaiApiKey ?? "not-provided",
+			apiKey: apiKey,
 			defaultHeaders: DEFAULT_HEADERS,
 		})
 	}
@@ -78,12 +85,15 @@ export class XAIHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler
 			if (chunk.usage) {
 				// Extract detailed token information if available
 				// First check for prompt_tokens_details structure (real API response)
-				const promptDetails = "prompt_tokens_details" in chunk.usage ? chunk.usage.prompt_tokens_details : null;
-				const cachedTokens = promptDetails && "cached_tokens" in promptDetails ? promptDetails.cached_tokens : 0;
+				const promptDetails = "prompt_tokens_details" in chunk.usage ? chunk.usage.prompt_tokens_details : null
+				const cachedTokens = promptDetails && "cached_tokens" in promptDetails ? promptDetails.cached_tokens : 0
 
 				// Fall back to direct fields in usage (used in test mocks)
-				const readTokens = cachedTokens || ("cache_read_input_tokens" in chunk.usage ? (chunk.usage as any).cache_read_input_tokens : 0);
-				const writeTokens = "cache_creation_input_tokens" in chunk.usage ? (chunk.usage as any).cache_creation_input_tokens : 0;
+				const readTokens =
+					cachedTokens ||
+					("cache_read_input_tokens" in chunk.usage ? (chunk.usage as any).cache_read_input_tokens : 0)
+				const writeTokens =
+					"cache_creation_input_tokens" in chunk.usage ? (chunk.usage as any).cache_creation_input_tokens : 0
 
 				yield {
 					type: "usage",

From 5f8874b6be5abf7252a9653035a0bd38f4e5e817 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Daniel Riccio <ricciodaniel98@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 3 Sep 2025 17:51:29 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 2/8] feat: show localized 'API key contains invalid
 characters' at request-time; centralize in openai-error-handler; remove
 provider/index specifics; i18n: add invalidKeyInvalidChars, remove
 invalidKeyNonAscii

---
 .../base-openai-compatible-provider.ts        | 17 ++--
 src/api/providers/huggingface.ts              | 32 ++++---
 src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts                | 19 +++-
 src/api/providers/ollama.ts                   | 45 +++++----
 src/api/providers/openai-native.ts            | 10 +-
 src/api/providers/openai.ts                   | 70 +++++++++-----
 src/api/providers/openrouter.ts               | 19 ++--
 src/api/providers/requesty.ts                 | 19 ++--
 src/api/providers/router-provider.ts          |  4 -
 .../__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts      | 93 -------------------
 src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts | 52 -----------
 .../providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts   | 44 +++++++++
 src/api/providers/xai.ts                      | 43 +++++----
 src/i18n/locales/ca/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/de/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/en/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/es/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/fr/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/hi/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/id/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/it/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/ja/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/ko/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/nl/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/pl/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/pt-BR/common.json            |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/ru/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/tr/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/vi/common.json               |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/zh-CN/common.json            |  3 +
 src/i18n/locales/zh-TW/common.json            |  3 +
 31 files changed, 264 insertions(+), 257 deletions(-)
 delete mode 100644 src/api/providers/utils/__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts
 delete mode 100644 src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts
 create mode 100644 src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts

diff --git a/src/api/providers/base-openai-compatible-provider.ts b/src/api/providers/base-openai-compatible-provider.ts
index 0c7828a71a92..5d2b9425e7cf 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/base-openai-compatible-provider.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/base-openai-compatible-provider.ts
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ import { convertToOpenAiMessages } from "../transform/openai-format"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
+import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 type BaseOpenAiCompatibleProviderOptions<ModelName extends string> = ApiHandlerOptions & {
 	providerName: string
@@ -56,9 +56,6 @@ export abstract class BaseOpenAiCompatibleProvider<ModelName extends string>
 			throw new Error("API key is required")
 		}
 
-		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(this.options.apiKey, this.providerName)
-
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL,
 			apiKey: this.options.apiKey,
@@ -90,7 +87,11 @@ export abstract class BaseOpenAiCompatibleProvider<ModelName extends string>
 			params.temperature = this.options.modelTemperature
 		}
 
-		return this.client.chat.completions.create(params, requestOptions)
+		try {
+			return this.client.chat.completions.create(params, requestOptions)
+		} catch (error) {
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
+		}
 	}
 
 	override async *createMessage(
@@ -131,11 +132,7 @@ export abstract class BaseOpenAiCompatibleProvider<ModelName extends string>
 
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
-			if (error instanceof Error) {
-				throw new Error(`${this.providerName} completion error: ${error.message}`)
-			}
-
-			throw error
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts b/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
index 95a9b7119ae9..f5b9c64eac4a 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from ".
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import { getHuggingFaceModels, getCachedHuggingFaceModels } from "./fetchers/huggingface"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
+import { createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling, handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler {
 	private client: OpenAI
@@ -23,14 +23,15 @@ export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletion
 			throw new Error("Hugging Face API key is required")
 		}
 
-		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(this.options.huggingFaceApiKey, "HuggingFace")
-
-		this.client = new OpenAI({
-			baseURL: "https://router.huggingface.co/v1",
-			apiKey: this.options.huggingFaceApiKey,
-			defaultHeaders: DEFAULT_HEADERS,
-		})
+		this.client = createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling(
+			() =>
+				new OpenAI({
+					baseURL: "https://router.huggingface.co/v1",
+					apiKey: this.options.huggingFaceApiKey,
+					defaultHeaders: DEFAULT_HEADERS,
+				}),
+			"HuggingFace",
+		)
 
 		// Try to get cached models first
 		this.modelCache = getCachedHuggingFaceModels()
@@ -68,7 +69,12 @@ export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletion
 			params.max_tokens = this.options.modelMaxTokens
 		}
 
-		const stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(params)
+		let stream
+		try {
+			stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(params)
+		} catch (error) {
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "HuggingFace")
+		}
 
 		for await (const chunk of stream) {
 			const delta = chunk.choices[0]?.delta
@@ -101,11 +107,7 @@ export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletion
 
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
-			if (error instanceof Error) {
-				throw new Error(`Hugging Face completion error: ${error.message}`)
-			}
-
-			throw error
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "HuggingFace")
 		}
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts b/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts
index 23d98616d8d2..e2b9b94b910d 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { getModels, getModelsFromCache } from "./fetchers/modelCache"
 import { getApiRequestTimeout } from "./utils/timeout-config"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
+import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 export class LmStudioHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler {
 	protected options: ApiHandlerOptions
@@ -25,9 +25,8 @@ export class LmStudioHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 		super()
 		this.options = options
 
-		// LM Studio uses "noop" as a placeholder API key, but we should still validate if a real key is provided
+		// LM Studio uses "noop" as a placeholder API key
 		const apiKey = "noop"
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "LM Studio")
 
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL: (this.options.lmStudioBaseUrl || "http://localhost:1234") + "/v1",
@@ -93,7 +92,12 @@ export class LmStudioHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 				params.draft_model = this.options.lmStudioDraftModelId
 			}
 
-			const results = await this.client.chat.completions.create(params)
+			let results
+			try {
+				results = await this.client.chat.completions.create(params)
+			} catch (error) {
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "LM Studio")
+			}
 
 			const matcher = new XmlMatcher(
 				"think",
@@ -169,7 +173,12 @@ export class LmStudioHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 				params.draft_model = this.options.lmStudioDraftModelId
 			}
 
-			const response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(params)
+			let response
+			try {
+				response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(params)
+			} catch (error) {
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "LM Studio")
+			}
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
 			throw new Error(
diff --git a/src/api/providers/ollama.ts b/src/api/providers/ollama.ts
index ef920d35ce06..cba9f3203cc2 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/ollama.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/ollama.ts
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ import { ApiStream } from "../transform/stream"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { getApiRequestTimeout } from "./utils/timeout-config"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
+import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 type CompletionUsage = OpenAI.Chat.Completions.ChatCompletionChunk["usage"]
 
@@ -30,9 +30,6 @@ export class OllamaHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 		// Otherwise use "ollama" as a placeholder for local instances
 		const apiKey = this.options.ollamaApiKey || "ollama"
 
-		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "Ollama")
-
 		const headers: Record<string, string> = {}
 		if (this.options.ollamaApiKey) {
 			headers["Authorization"] = `Bearer ${this.options.ollamaApiKey}`
@@ -58,13 +55,18 @@ export class OllamaHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 			...(useR1Format ? convertToR1Format(messages) : convertToOpenAiMessages(messages)),
 		]
 
-		const stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
-			model: this.getModel().id,
-			messages: openAiMessages,
-			temperature: this.options.modelTemperature ?? 0,
-			stream: true,
-			stream_options: { include_usage: true },
-		})
+		let stream
+		try {
+			stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
+				model: this.getModel().id,
+				messages: openAiMessages,
+				temperature: this.options.modelTemperature ?? 0,
+				stream: true,
+				stream_options: { include_usage: true },
+			})
+		} catch (error) {
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "Ollama")
+		}
 		const matcher = new XmlMatcher(
 			"think",
 			(chunk) =>
@@ -110,14 +112,19 @@ export class OllamaHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 		try {
 			const modelId = this.getModel().id
 			const useR1Format = modelId.toLowerCase().includes("deepseek-r1")
-			const response = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
-				model: this.getModel().id,
-				messages: useR1Format
-					? convertToR1Format([{ role: "user", content: prompt }])
-					: [{ role: "user", content: prompt }],
-				temperature: this.options.modelTemperature ?? (useR1Format ? DEEP_SEEK_DEFAULT_TEMPERATURE : 0),
-				stream: false,
-			})
+			let response
+			try {
+				response = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
+					model: this.getModel().id,
+					messages: useR1Format
+						? convertToR1Format([{ role: "user", content: prompt }])
+						: [{ role: "user", content: prompt }],
+					temperature: this.options.modelTemperature ?? (useR1Format ? DEEP_SEEK_DEFAULT_TEMPERATURE : 0),
+					stream: false,
+				})
+			} catch (error) {
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "Ollama")
+			}
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
 			if (error instanceof Error) {
diff --git a/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts b/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
index 24b3d82fd2c3..9c2170ef381a 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ import { getModelParams } from "../transform/model-params"
 
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
+import { createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 export type OpenAiNativeModel = ReturnType<OpenAiNativeHandler["getModel"]>
 
@@ -61,10 +61,10 @@ export class OpenAiNativeHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletio
 		}
 		const apiKey = this.options.openAiNativeApiKey ?? "not-provided"
 
-		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "OpenAI Native")
-
-		this.client = new OpenAI({ baseURL: this.options.openAiNativeBaseUrl, apiKey })
+		this.client = createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling(
+			() => new OpenAI({ baseURL: this.options.openAiNativeBaseUrl, apiKey }),
+			"OpenAI Native",
+		)
 	}
 
 	private normalizeUsage(usage: any, model: OpenAiNativeModel): ApiStreamUsageChunk | undefined {
diff --git a/src/api/providers/openai.ts b/src/api/providers/openai.ts
index a50b8324c26c..1068cd75727d 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openai.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openai.ts
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { getApiRequestTimeout } from "./utils/timeout-config"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
+import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 // TODO: Rename this to OpenAICompatibleHandler. Also, I think the
 // `OpenAINativeHandler` can subclass from this, since it's obviously
@@ -43,9 +43,6 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 		const urlHost = this._getUrlHost(this.options.openAiBaseUrl)
 		const isAzureOpenAi = urlHost === "azure.com" || urlHost.endsWith(".azure.com") || options.openAiUseAzure
 
-		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "OpenAI")
-
 		const headers = {
 			...DEFAULT_HEADERS,
 			...(this.options.openAiHeaders || {}),
@@ -178,10 +175,15 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 			// Add max_tokens if needed
 			this.addMaxTokensIfNeeded(requestOptions, modelInfo)
 
-			const stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
-				requestOptions,
-				isAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
-			)
+			let stream
+			try {
+				stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
+					requestOptions,
+					isAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
+				)
+			} catch (error) {
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+			}
 
 			const matcher = new XmlMatcher(
 				"think",
@@ -240,10 +242,15 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 			// Add max_tokens if needed
 			this.addMaxTokensIfNeeded(requestOptions, modelInfo)
 
-			const response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
-				requestOptions,
-				this._isAzureAiInference(modelUrl) ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
-			)
+			let response
+			try {
+				response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
+					requestOptions,
+					this._isAzureAiInference(modelUrl) ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
+				)
+			} catch (error) {
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+			}
 
 			yield {
 				type: "text",
@@ -285,10 +292,15 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 			// Add max_tokens if needed
 			this.addMaxTokensIfNeeded(requestOptions, modelInfo)
 
-			const response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
-				requestOptions,
-				isAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
-			)
+			let response
+			try {
+				response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
+					requestOptions,
+					isAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
+				)
+			} catch (error) {
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+			}
 
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
@@ -331,10 +343,15 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 			// This allows O3 models to limit response length when includeMaxTokens is enabled
 			this.addMaxTokensIfNeeded(requestOptions, modelInfo)
 
-			const stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
-				requestOptions,
-				methodIsAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
-			)
+			let stream
+			try {
+				stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
+					requestOptions,
+					methodIsAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
+				)
+			} catch (error) {
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+			}
 
 			yield* this.handleStreamResponse(stream)
 		} else {
@@ -356,10 +373,15 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 			// This allows O3 models to limit response length when includeMaxTokens is enabled
 			this.addMaxTokensIfNeeded(requestOptions, modelInfo)
 
-			const response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
-				requestOptions,
-				methodIsAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
-			)
+			let response
+			try {
+				response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(
+					requestOptions,
+					methodIsAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
+				)
+			} catch (error) {
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+			}
 
 			yield {
 				type: "text",
diff --git a/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts b/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts
index 635c5950d60f..6848b1ad8db6 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ import { getModelEndpoints } from "./fetchers/modelEndpointCache"
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler } from "../index"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
+import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 // Image generation types
 interface ImageGenerationResponse {
@@ -94,9 +94,6 @@ export class OpenRouterHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionH
 		const baseURL = this.options.openRouterBaseUrl || "https://openrouter.ai/api/v1"
 		const apiKey = this.options.openRouterApiKey ?? "not-provided"
 
-		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "OpenRouter")
-
 		this.client = new OpenAI({ baseURL, apiKey, defaultHeaders: DEFAULT_HEADERS })
 	}
 
@@ -165,7 +162,12 @@ export class OpenRouterHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionH
 			...(reasoning && { reasoning }),
 		}
 
-		const stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
+		let stream
+		try {
+			stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
+		} catch (error) {
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenRouter")
+		}
 
 		let lastUsage: CompletionUsage | undefined = undefined
 
@@ -263,7 +265,12 @@ export class OpenRouterHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionH
 			...(reasoning && { reasoning }),
 		}
 
-		const response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
+		let response
+		try {
+			response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
+		} catch (error) {
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenRouter")
+		}
 
 		if ("error" in response) {
 			const error = response.error as { message?: string; code?: number }
diff --git a/src/api/providers/requesty.ts b/src/api/providers/requesty.ts
index 388f97e0ca97..6bd8c622359e 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/requesty.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/requesty.ts
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ import { getModels } from "./fetchers/modelCache"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
 import { toRequestyServiceUrl } from "../../shared/utils/requesty"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
+import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 // Requesty usage includes an extra field for Anthropic use cases.
 // Safely cast the prompt token details section to the appropriate structure.
@@ -52,9 +52,6 @@ export class RequestyHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 
 		const apiKey = this.options.requestyApiKey ?? "not-provided"
 
-		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "Requesty")
-
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL: this.baseURL,
 			apiKey: apiKey,
@@ -132,7 +129,12 @@ export class RequestyHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 			requesty: { trace_id: metadata?.taskId, extra: { mode: metadata?.mode } },
 		}
 
-		const stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
+		let stream
+		try {
+			stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
+		} catch (error) {
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "Requesty")
+		}
 		let lastUsage: any = undefined
 
 		for await (const chunk of stream) {
@@ -168,7 +170,12 @@ export class RequestyHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 			temperature: temperature,
 		}
 
-		const response: OpenAI.Chat.ChatCompletion = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
+		let response: OpenAI.Chat.ChatCompletion
+		try {
+			response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
+		} catch (error) {
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "Requesty")
+		}
 		return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 	}
 }
diff --git a/src/api/providers/router-provider.ts b/src/api/providers/router-provider.ts
index ace206353f29..25e9a11e1b2c 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/router-provider.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/router-provider.ts
@@ -8,7 +8,6 @@ import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import { getModels } from "./fetchers/modelCache"
 
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
 
 type RouterProviderOptions = {
 	name: RouterName
@@ -46,9 +45,6 @@ export abstract class RouterProvider extends BaseProvider {
 		this.defaultModelId = defaultModelId
 		this.defaultModelInfo = defaultModelInfo
 
-		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, name)
-
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL,
 			apiKey,
diff --git a/src/api/providers/utils/__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts b/src/api/providers/utils/__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index b3906339786a..000000000000
--- a/src/api/providers/utils/__tests__/api-key-validation.spec.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,93 +0,0 @@
-import { describe, it, expect } from "vitest"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString, validateApiKeyForAscii } from "../api-key-validation"
-
-describe("API Key Validation", () => {
-	describe("validateApiKeyForByteString", () => {
-		it("should accept valid ASCII characters", () => {
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("abc123XYZ", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("test-api-key_123", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("!@#$%^&*()", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-		})
-
-		it("should accept extended ASCII characters (128-255)", () => {
-			// Extended ASCII characters like ñ (241), ü (252)
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("test\xF1\xFC", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("key\xFF", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-		})
-
-		it("should reject characters above 255", () => {
-			// Chinese character 中 (20013)
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("test中key", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
-				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 5",
-			)
-
-			// Emoji 😀 (128512)
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("key😀", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
-				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4",
-			)
-
-			// Korean character 한 (54620)
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("한글key", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
-				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 1",
-			)
-		})
-
-		it("should handle undefined and empty keys", () => {
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString(undefined, "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-		})
-
-		it("should provide clear error messages", () => {
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForByteString("abc中def", "DeepSeek")).toThrow(
-				"Invalid DeepSeek API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4. " +
-					"API keys must contain only ASCII characters (character codes 0-255). " +
-					"Please check your API key configuration.",
-			)
-		})
-	})
-
-	describe("validateApiKeyForAscii", () => {
-		it("should accept standard ASCII characters (0-127)", () => {
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("abc123XYZ", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("test-api-key_123", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("!@#$%^&*()", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-		})
-
-		it("should reject extended ASCII characters (128-255)", () => {
-			// Extended ASCII character ñ (241)
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("test\xF1key", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
-				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 5",
-			)
-
-			// Extended ASCII character ü (252)
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("key\xFC", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
-				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4",
-			)
-		})
-
-		it("should reject Unicode characters", () => {
-			// Chinese character 中 (20013)
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("test中key", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
-				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 5",
-			)
-
-			// Emoji 😀 (128512)
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("key😀", "TestProvider")).toThrow(
-				"Invalid TestProvider API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4",
-			)
-		})
-
-		it("should handle undefined and empty keys", () => {
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii(undefined, "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("", "TestProvider")).not.toThrow()
-		})
-
-		it("should provide clear error messages", () => {
-			expect(() => validateApiKeyForAscii("abc\xF1def", "OpenAI")).toThrow(
-				"Invalid OpenAI API key: contains non-ASCII character at position 4. " +
-					"API keys must contain only standard ASCII characters (character codes 0-127). " +
-					"Please check your API key configuration.",
-			)
-		})
-	})
-})
diff --git a/src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts b/src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index af0f794278e5..000000000000
--- a/src/api/providers/utils/api-key-validation.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,52 +0,0 @@
-/**
- * Validates that an API key contains only valid ByteString characters (0-255).
- * The OpenAI client library requires API keys to be convertible to ByteString format,
- * which only supports characters with values 0-255.
- *
- * @param apiKey - The API key to validate
- * @param providerName - The name of the provider for error messaging
- * @throws Error if the API key contains invalid characters
- */
-export function validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey: string | undefined, providerName: string): void {
-	if (!apiKey) {
-		return // No validation needed for undefined/empty keys
-	}
-
-	// Check each character in the API key
-	for (let i = 0; i < apiKey.length; i++) {
-		const charCode = apiKey.charCodeAt(i)
-		if (charCode > 255) {
-			throw new Error(
-				`Invalid ${providerName} API key: contains non-ASCII character at position ${i + 1}. ` +
-					`API keys must contain only ASCII characters (character codes 0-255). ` +
-					`Please check your API key configuration.`,
-			)
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-/**
- * Validates that an API key contains only standard ASCII characters (0-127).
- * This is a stricter validation that only allows standard ASCII characters.
- *
- * @param apiKey - The API key to validate
- * @param providerName - The name of the provider for error messaging
- * @throws Error if the API key contains non-ASCII characters
- */
-export function validateApiKeyForAscii(apiKey: string | undefined, providerName: string): void {
-	if (!apiKey) {
-		return // No validation needed for undefined/empty keys
-	}
-
-	// Check each character in the API key
-	for (let i = 0; i < apiKey.length; i++) {
-		const charCode = apiKey.charCodeAt(i)
-		if (charCode > 127) {
-			throw new Error(
-				`Invalid ${providerName} API key: contains non-ASCII character at position ${i + 1}. ` +
-					`API keys must contain only standard ASCII characters (character codes 0-127). ` +
-					`Please check your API key configuration.`,
-			)
-		}
-	}
-}
diff --git a/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts b/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..d90aef239405
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+/**
+ * General error handler for OpenAI client errors
+ * Transforms technical errors into user-friendly messages
+ */
+
+import i18n from "../../../i18n/setup"
+
+/**
+ * Handles OpenAI client errors and transforms them into user-friendly messages
+ * @param error - The error to handle
+ * @param providerName - The name of the provider for context in error messages
+ * @returns The original error or a transformed user-friendly error
+ */
+export function handleOpenAIError(error: unknown, providerName: string): Error {
+	if (error instanceof Error) {
+		// Invalid character/ByteString conversion error in API key
+		if (error.message.includes("Cannot convert argument to a ByteString")) {
+			return new Error(i18n.t("common:errors.api.invalidKeyInvalidChars"))
+		}
+
+		// Add more error message transformations here as needed
+
+		// Return original error if no transformation matches
+		return error
+	}
+
+	// If it's not even an Error object, wrap it
+	return new Error(`${providerName} error: ${String(error)}`)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Wraps an OpenAI client instantiation with error handling
+ * @param createClient - Function that creates the OpenAI client
+ * @param providerName - The name of the provider for error messages
+ * @returns The created client
+ * @throws User-friendly error if client creation fails
+ */
+export function createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling<T>(createClient: () => T, providerName: string): T {
+	try {
+		return createClient()
+	} catch (error) {
+		throw handleOpenAIError(error, providerName)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/src/api/providers/xai.ts b/src/api/providers/xai.ts
index 84f0e12465be..d31324ffa74c 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/xai.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/xai.ts
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ import { getModelParams } from "../transform/model-params"
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
-import { validateApiKeyForByteString } from "./utils/api-key-validation"
+import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 const XAI_DEFAULT_TEMPERATURE = 0
 
@@ -26,9 +26,6 @@ export class XAIHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler
 
 		const apiKey = this.options.xaiApiKey ?? "not-provided"
 
-		// Validate API key for ByteString compatibility
-		validateApiKeyForByteString(apiKey, "xAI")
-
 		this.client = new OpenAI({
 			baseURL: "https://api.x.ai/v1",
 			apiKey: apiKey,
@@ -55,15 +52,20 @@ export class XAIHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler
 		const { id: modelId, info: modelInfo, reasoning } = this.getModel()
 
 		// Use the OpenAI-compatible API.
-		const stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
-			model: modelId,
-			max_tokens: modelInfo.maxTokens,
-			temperature: this.options.modelTemperature ?? XAI_DEFAULT_TEMPERATURE,
-			messages: [{ role: "system", content: systemPrompt }, ...convertToOpenAiMessages(messages)],
-			stream: true,
-			stream_options: { include_usage: true },
-			...(reasoning && reasoning),
-		})
+		let stream
+		try {
+			stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
+				model: modelId,
+				max_tokens: modelInfo.maxTokens,
+				temperature: this.options.modelTemperature ?? XAI_DEFAULT_TEMPERATURE,
+				messages: [{ role: "system", content: systemPrompt }, ...convertToOpenAiMessages(messages)],
+				stream: true,
+				stream_options: { include_usage: true },
+				...(reasoning && reasoning),
+			})
+		} catch (error) {
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "xAI")
+		}
 
 		for await (const chunk of stream) {
 			const delta = chunk.choices[0]?.delta
@@ -110,11 +112,16 @@ export class XAIHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler
 		const { id: modelId, reasoning } = this.getModel()
 
 		try {
-			const response = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
-				model: modelId,
-				messages: [{ role: "user", content: prompt }],
-				...(reasoning && reasoning),
-			})
+			let response
+			try {
+				response = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
+					model: modelId,
+					messages: [{ role: "user", content: prompt }],
+					...(reasoning && reasoning),
+				})
+			} catch (error) {
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "xAI")
+			}
 
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/ca/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/ca/common.json
index 74b265f51313..583f82693a6a 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/ca/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/ca/common.json
@@ -107,6 +107,9 @@
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "El proveïdor Roo requereix autenticació al núvol. Si us plau, inicieu sessió a Roo Code Cloud."
 		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "La clau API conté caràcters no vàlids."
+		},
 		"mode_import_failed": "Ha fallat la importació del mode: {{error}}"
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/de/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/de/common.json
index 856e4e1dce18..2d1a2778edcf 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/de/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/de/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Roo-Anbieter erfordert Cloud-Authentifizierung. Bitte melde dich bei Roo Code Cloud an."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "API-Schlüssel enthält ungültige Zeichen."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/en/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/en/common.json
index e413bc0890ce..40a897ceb312 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/en/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/en/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Roo provider requires cloud authentication. Please sign in to Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "API key contains invalid characters."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/es/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/es/common.json
index 7b2b9a43476c..0b7c7e12ee8f 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/es/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/es/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "El proveedor Roo requiere autenticación en la nube. Por favor, inicia sesión en Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "La clave API contiene caracteres inválidos."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/fr/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/fr/common.json
index e9282a0b97f2..9b92cf7240c8 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/fr/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/fr/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Le fournisseur Roo nécessite une authentification cloud. Veuillez vous connecter à Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "La clé API contient des caractères invalides."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/hi/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/hi/common.json
index 3f5ab60413e9..f9bbed0dfcab 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/hi/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/hi/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Roo प्रदाता को क्लाउड प्रमाणीकरण की आवश्यकता है। कृपया Roo Code Cloud में साइन इन करें।"
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "API कुंजी में अमान्य वर्ण हैं।"
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/id/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/id/common.json
index 3c4305650342..147d88c4e74e 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/id/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/id/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Penyedia Roo memerlukan autentikasi cloud. Silakan masuk ke Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "Kunci API mengandung karakter tidak valid."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/it/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/it/common.json
index c19114baf1f5..c304896163e8 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/it/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/it/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Il provider Roo richiede l'autenticazione cloud. Accedi a Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "La chiave API contiene caratteri non validi."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/ja/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/ja/common.json
index d595484fa1f5..3f2863510814 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/ja/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/ja/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Rooプロバイダーはクラウド認証が必要です。Roo Code Cloudにサインインしてください。"
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "APIキーに無効な文字が含まれています。"
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/ko/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/ko/common.json
index 3209952c6d8e..d1f2ef9c44ad 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/ko/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/ko/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Roo 제공업체는 클라우드 인증이 필요합니다. Roo Code Cloud에 로그인하세요."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "API 키에 유효하지 않은 문자가 포함되어 있습니다."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/nl/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/nl/common.json
index c0c6ba35e9fa..a2b29d8df03c 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/nl/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/nl/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Roo provider vereist cloud authenticatie. Log in bij Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "API-sleutel bevat ongeldige karakters."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/pl/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/pl/common.json
index 475ba069eefe..45e0651fac6e 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/pl/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/pl/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Dostawca Roo wymaga uwierzytelnienia w chmurze. Zaloguj się do Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "Klucz API zawiera nieprawidłowe znaki."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/pt-BR/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/pt-BR/common.json
index 55a41fcf1b78..001457707e02 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/pt-BR/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/pt-BR/common.json
@@ -107,6 +107,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "O provedor Roo requer autenticação na nuvem. Faça login no Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "A chave API contém caracteres inválidos."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/ru/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/ru/common.json
index 505998daa22c..3500a9a5add6 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/ru/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/ru/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Провайдер Roo требует облачной аутентификации. Войдите в Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "API-ключ содержит недопустимые символы."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/tr/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/tr/common.json
index 9b8af8d94cbe..4089cff21765 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/tr/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/tr/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Roo sağlayıcısı bulut kimlik doğrulaması gerektirir. Lütfen Roo Code Cloud'a giriş yapın."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "API anahtarı geçersiz karakterler içeriyor."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/vi/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/vi/common.json
index 4877f297adc7..ecf686f520e0 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/vi/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/vi/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Nhà cung cấp Roo yêu cầu xác thực đám mây. Vui lòng đăng nhập vào Roo Code Cloud."
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "Khóa API chứa ký tự không hợp lệ."
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/zh-CN/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/zh-CN/common.json
index 5bac0d2847ea..9f4d24f6ebfb 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/zh-CN/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/zh-CN/common.json
@@ -108,6 +108,9 @@
 		},
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Roo 提供商需要云认证。请登录 Roo Code Cloud。"
+		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "API 密钥包含无效字符。"
 		}
 	},
 	"warnings": {
diff --git a/src/i18n/locales/zh-TW/common.json b/src/i18n/locales/zh-TW/common.json
index 0f82f48d1372..d40b3e094f57 100644
--- a/src/i18n/locales/zh-TW/common.json
+++ b/src/i18n/locales/zh-TW/common.json
@@ -103,6 +103,9 @@
 		"roo": {
 			"authenticationRequired": "Roo 提供者需要雲端認證。請登入 Roo Code Cloud。"
 		},
+		"api": {
+			"invalidKeyInvalidChars": "API 金鑰包含無效字元。"
+		},
 		"mode_import_failed": "匯入模式失敗：{{error}}"
 	},
 	"warnings": {

From d3f020f2caf2af4e7f685a5c07bbeba5b56c0bdf Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Daniel Riccio <ricciodaniel98@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 4 Sep 2025 00:05:26 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 3/8] refactor(providers): remove
 createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling; construct clients directly and keep
 request-time error mapping via handleOpenAIError

---
 src/api/providers/huggingface.ts                | 16 ++++++----------
 src/api/providers/openai-native.ts              |  6 +-----
 src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts | 15 ---------------
 3 files changed, 7 insertions(+), 30 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts b/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
index f5b9c64eac4a..634fcf5737f7 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from ".
 import { DEFAULT_HEADERS } from "./constants"
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import { getHuggingFaceModels, getCachedHuggingFaceModels } from "./fetchers/huggingface"
-import { createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling, handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
+import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler {
 	private client: OpenAI
@@ -23,15 +23,11 @@ export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletion
 			throw new Error("Hugging Face API key is required")
 		}
 
-		this.client = createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling(
-			() =>
-				new OpenAI({
-					baseURL: "https://router.huggingface.co/v1",
-					apiKey: this.options.huggingFaceApiKey,
-					defaultHeaders: DEFAULT_HEADERS,
-				}),
-			"HuggingFace",
-		)
+		this.client = new OpenAI({
+			baseURL: "https://router.huggingface.co/v1",
+			apiKey: this.options.huggingFaceApiKey,
+			defaultHeaders: DEFAULT_HEADERS,
+		})
 
 		// Try to get cached models first
 		this.modelCache = getCachedHuggingFaceModels()
diff --git a/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts b/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
index 9c2170ef381a..fa72e5d8c893 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
@@ -22,7 +22,6 @@ import { getModelParams } from "../transform/model-params"
 
 import { BaseProvider } from "./base-provider"
 import type { SingleCompletionHandler, ApiHandlerCreateMessageMetadata } from "../index"
-import { createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 
 export type OpenAiNativeModel = ReturnType<OpenAiNativeHandler["getModel"]>
 
@@ -61,10 +60,7 @@ export class OpenAiNativeHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletio
 		}
 		const apiKey = this.options.openAiNativeApiKey ?? "not-provided"
 
-		this.client = createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling(
-			() => new OpenAI({ baseURL: this.options.openAiNativeBaseUrl, apiKey }),
-			"OpenAI Native",
-		)
+		this.client = new OpenAI({ baseURL: this.options.openAiNativeBaseUrl, apiKey })
 	}
 
 	private normalizeUsage(usage: any, model: OpenAiNativeModel): ApiStreamUsageChunk | undefined {
diff --git a/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts b/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts
index d90aef239405..6b1d71fd215e 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts
@@ -27,18 +27,3 @@ export function handleOpenAIError(error: unknown, providerName: string): Error {
 	// If it's not even an Error object, wrap it
 	return new Error(`${providerName} error: ${String(error)}`)
 }
-
-/**
- * Wraps an OpenAI client instantiation with error handling
- * @param createClient - Function that creates the OpenAI client
- * @param providerName - The name of the provider for error messages
- * @returns The created client
- * @throws User-friendly error if client creation fails
- */
-export function createOpenAIClientWithErrorHandling<T>(createClient: () => T, providerName: string): T {
-	try {
-		return createClient()
-	} catch (error) {
-		throw handleOpenAIError(error, providerName)
-	}
-}

From 20ba1048de8a0692344fd42d9af269d7e03f7651 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Daniel Riccio <ricciodaniel98@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 4 Sep 2025 00:13:59 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 4/8] fix(xai): simplify completePrompt error handling; remove
 nested try/catch and use handleOpenAIError directly

---
 src/api/providers/xai.ts | 21 ++++++---------------
 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+), 15 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/api/providers/xai.ts b/src/api/providers/xai.ts
index d31324ffa74c..61cfed14c12f 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/xai.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/xai.ts
@@ -112,24 +112,15 @@ export class XAIHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler
 		const { id: modelId, reasoning } = this.getModel()
 
 		try {
-			let response
-			try {
-				response = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
-					model: modelId,
-					messages: [{ role: "user", content: prompt }],
-					...(reasoning && reasoning),
-				})
-			} catch (error) {
-				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "xAI")
-			}
+			const response = await this.client.chat.completions.create({
+				model: modelId,
+				messages: [{ role: "user", content: prompt }],
+				...(reasoning && reasoning),
+			})
 
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
-			if (error instanceof Error) {
-				throw new Error(`xAI completion error: ${error.message}`)
-			}
-
-			throw error
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "xAI")
 		}
 	}
 }

From fc6e9c6f4feb12bbeb73196d6ecd6ee7722b398a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Daniel Riccio <ricciodaniel98@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 4 Sep 2025 00:27:08 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 5/8] fix: remove formatting change from openai-native.ts to
 match main

---
 src/api/providers/openai-native.ts | 1 -
 1 file changed, 1 deletion(-)

diff --git a/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts b/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
index fa72e5d8c893..c884091c02a6 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openai-native.ts
@@ -59,7 +59,6 @@ export class OpenAiNativeHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletio
 			this.options.enableGpt5ReasoningSummary = true
 		}
 		const apiKey = this.options.openAiNativeApiKey ?? "not-provided"
-
 		this.client = new OpenAI({ baseURL: this.options.openAiNativeBaseUrl, apiKey })
 	}
 

From 3f7b07b922f4978be3201c3f23698a4cf0e253f1 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Daniel Riccio <ricciodaniel98@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 4 Sep 2025 00:45:54 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 6/8] fix: ensure consistent error message format in
 handleOpenAIError

- Wrap all non-ByteString errors with provider-specific prefix
- Handle potential undefined error messages safely
- Maintain consistent error format expected by unit tests
---
 src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts | 14 +++++++-------
 1 file changed, 7 insertions(+), 7 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts b/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts
index 6b1d71fd215e..90be81f7c434 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/utils/openai-error-handler.ts
@@ -13,17 +13,17 @@ import i18n from "../../../i18n/setup"
  */
 export function handleOpenAIError(error: unknown, providerName: string): Error {
 	if (error instanceof Error) {
+		const msg = error.message || ""
+
 		// Invalid character/ByteString conversion error in API key
-		if (error.message.includes("Cannot convert argument to a ByteString")) {
+		if (msg.includes("Cannot convert argument to a ByteString")) {
 			return new Error(i18n.t("common:errors.api.invalidKeyInvalidChars"))
 		}
 
-		// Add more error message transformations here as needed
-
-		// Return original error if no transformation matches
-		return error
+		// For other Error instances, wrap with provider-specific prefix
+		return new Error(`${providerName} completion error: ${msg}`)
 	}
 
-	// If it's not even an Error object, wrap it
-	return new Error(`${providerName} error: ${String(error)}`)
+	// Non-Error: wrap with provider-specific prefix
+	return new Error(`${providerName} completion error: ${String(error)}`)
 }

From 4bbfb897aaba84b78f03628adc8b75d2e9e6d4a2 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Daniel Riccio <ricciodaniel98@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 4 Sep 2025 01:01:17 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 7/8] refactor: define provider names as constants across all
 providers

- Add providerName constant to all provider classes that use handleOpenAIError
- Replace hardcoded provider name strings with this.providerName
- Improves maintainability and consistency across providers
- Affected providers: OpenAI, HuggingFace, LM Studio, Ollama, OpenRouter, Requesty, xAI
---
 src/api/providers/huggingface.ts | 5 +++--
 src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts   | 5 +++--
 src/api/providers/ollama.ts      | 5 +++--
 src/api/providers/openrouter.ts  | 5 +++--
 src/api/providers/requesty.ts    | 5 +++--
 src/api/providers/xai.ts         | 5 +++--
 6 files changed, 18 insertions(+), 12 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts b/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
index 634fcf5737f7..7b62046b99e7 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/huggingface.ts
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletion
 	private client: OpenAI
 	private options: ApiHandlerOptions
 	private modelCache: ModelRecord | null = null
+	private readonly providerName = "HuggingFace"
 
 	constructor(options: ApiHandlerOptions) {
 		super()
@@ -69,7 +70,7 @@ export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletion
 		try {
 			stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(params)
 		} catch (error) {
-			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "HuggingFace")
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 
 		for await (const chunk of stream) {
@@ -103,7 +104,7 @@ export class HuggingFaceHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletion
 
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
-			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "HuggingFace")
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts b/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts
index e2b9b94b910d..6c58a96ae1fa 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/lm-studio.ts
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 export class LmStudioHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler {
 	protected options: ApiHandlerOptions
 	private client: OpenAI
+	private readonly providerName = "LM Studio"
 
 	constructor(options: ApiHandlerOptions) {
 		super()
@@ -96,7 +97,7 @@ export class LmStudioHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 			try {
 				results = await this.client.chat.completions.create(params)
 			} catch (error) {
-				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "LM Studio")
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 			}
 
 			const matcher = new XmlMatcher(
@@ -177,7 +178,7 @@ export class LmStudioHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 			try {
 				response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(params)
 			} catch (error) {
-				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "LM Studio")
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 			}
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
diff --git a/src/api/providers/ollama.ts b/src/api/providers/ollama.ts
index cba9f3203cc2..ab9df116aa84 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/ollama.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/ollama.ts
@@ -21,6 +21,7 @@ type CompletionUsage = OpenAI.Chat.Completions.ChatCompletionChunk["usage"]
 export class OllamaHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler {
 	protected options: ApiHandlerOptions
 	private client: OpenAI
+	private readonly providerName = "Ollama"
 
 	constructor(options: ApiHandlerOptions) {
 		super()
@@ -65,7 +66,7 @@ export class OllamaHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 				stream_options: { include_usage: true },
 			})
 		} catch (error) {
-			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "Ollama")
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 		const matcher = new XmlMatcher(
 			"think",
@@ -123,7 +124,7 @@ export class OllamaHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 					stream: false,
 				})
 			} catch (error) {
-				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "Ollama")
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 			}
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
diff --git a/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts b/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts
index 6848b1ad8db6..580b17331194 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openrouter.ts
@@ -86,6 +86,7 @@ export class OpenRouterHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionH
 	private client: OpenAI
 	protected models: ModelRecord = {}
 	protected endpoints: ModelRecord = {}
+	private readonly providerName = "OpenRouter"
 
 	constructor(options: ApiHandlerOptions) {
 		super()
@@ -166,7 +167,7 @@ export class OpenRouterHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionH
 		try {
 			stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
 		} catch (error) {
-			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenRouter")
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 
 		let lastUsage: CompletionUsage | undefined = undefined
@@ -269,7 +270,7 @@ export class OpenRouterHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionH
 		try {
 			response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
 		} catch (error) {
-			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenRouter")
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 
 		if ("error" in response) {
diff --git a/src/api/providers/requesty.ts b/src/api/providers/requesty.ts
index 6bd8c622359e..16aefae52861 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/requesty.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/requesty.ts
@@ -43,6 +43,7 @@ export class RequestyHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 	protected models: ModelRecord = {}
 	private client: OpenAI
 	private baseURL: string
+	private readonly providerName = "Requesty"
 
 	constructor(options: ApiHandlerOptions) {
 		super()
@@ -133,7 +134,7 @@ export class RequestyHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 		try {
 			stream = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
 		} catch (error) {
-			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "Requesty")
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 		let lastUsage: any = undefined
 
@@ -174,7 +175,7 @@ export class RequestyHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHan
 		try {
 			response = await this.client.chat.completions.create(completionParams)
 		} catch (error) {
-			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "Requesty")
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 		return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 	}
diff --git a/src/api/providers/xai.ts b/src/api/providers/xai.ts
index 61cfed14c12f..7eb6e9866dd8 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/xai.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/xai.ts
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ const XAI_DEFAULT_TEMPERATURE = 0
 export class XAIHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler {
 	protected options: ApiHandlerOptions
 	private client: OpenAI
+	private readonly providerName = "xAI"
 
 	constructor(options: ApiHandlerOptions) {
 		super()
@@ -64,7 +65,7 @@ export class XAIHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler
 				...(reasoning && reasoning),
 			})
 		} catch (error) {
-			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "xAI")
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 
 		for await (const chunk of stream) {
@@ -120,7 +121,7 @@ export class XAIHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler
 
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
-			throw handleOpenAIError(error, "xAI")
+			throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 		}
 	}
 }

From 276d57b1df1cced3dd17d6ad8b411106b3ef9ca9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Daniel Riccio <ricciodaniel98@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 4 Sep 2025 01:23:14 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 8/8] refactor: use class property for provider name in
 OpenAiHandler

- Replace hardcoded 'OpenAI' strings with this.providerName property
- Follows same pattern as other provider classes for consistency
---
 src/api/providers/openai.ts | 13 +++++++------
 1 file changed, 7 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/api/providers/openai.ts b/src/api/providers/openai.ts
index 1068cd75727d..501ff3d5f556 100644
--- a/src/api/providers/openai.ts
+++ b/src/api/providers/openai.ts
@@ -32,6 +32,7 @@ import { handleOpenAIError } from "./utils/openai-error-handler"
 export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandler {
 	protected options: ApiHandlerOptions
 	private client: OpenAI
+	private readonly providerName = "OpenAI"
 
 	constructor(options: ApiHandlerOptions) {
 		super()
@@ -182,7 +183,7 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 					isAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
 				)
 			} catch (error) {
-				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 			}
 
 			const matcher = new XmlMatcher(
@@ -249,7 +250,7 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 					this._isAzureAiInference(modelUrl) ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
 				)
 			} catch (error) {
-				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 			}
 
 			yield {
@@ -299,13 +300,13 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 					isAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
 				)
 			} catch (error) {
-				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 			}
 
 			return response.choices[0]?.message.content || ""
 		} catch (error) {
 			if (error instanceof Error) {
-				throw new Error(`OpenAI completion error: ${error.message}`)
+				throw new Error(`${this.providerName} completion error: ${error.message}`)
 			}
 
 			throw error
@@ -350,7 +351,7 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 					methodIsAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
 				)
 			} catch (error) {
-				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 			}
 
 			yield* this.handleStreamResponse(stream)
@@ -380,7 +381,7 @@ export class OpenAiHandler extends BaseProvider implements SingleCompletionHandl
 					methodIsAzureAiInference ? { path: OPENAI_AZURE_AI_INFERENCE_PATH } : {},
 				)
 			} catch (error) {
-				throw handleOpenAIError(error, "OpenAI")
+				throw handleOpenAIError(error, this.providerName)
 			}
 
 			yield {