diff --git a/app/controllers/concerns/idv_session.rb b/app/controllers/concerns/idv_session.rb
index c3a5c3bc4ab..ea5ce481adf 100644
--- a/app/controllers/concerns/idv_session.rb
+++ b/app/controllers/concerns/idv_session.rb
@@ -41,7 +41,10 @@ def idv_session
   end
 
   def idv_attempter_throttled?
-    Throttler::IsThrottled.call(effective_user.id, :idv_resolution)
+    Throttle.for(
+      user: effective_user,
+      throttle_type: :idv_resolution,
+    ).throttled?
   end
 
   def redirect_unless_effective_user
diff --git a/app/controllers/idv/capture_doc_status_controller.rb b/app/controllers/idv/capture_doc_status_controller.rb
index 5f7fa437124..f7c7307c482 100644
--- a/app/controllers/idv/capture_doc_status_controller.rb
+++ b/app/controllers/idv/capture_doc_status_controller.rb
@@ -50,7 +50,10 @@ def document_capture_session
     end
 
     def throttled?
-      Throttler::IsThrottled.call(document_capture_session.user_id, :idv_acuant)
+      Throttle.for(
+        user: document_capture_session.user,
+        throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
+      ).throttled?
     end
   end
 end
diff --git a/app/controllers/idv/gpo_controller.rb b/app/controllers/idv/gpo_controller.rb
index c7c97d21641..e07ba7c2d2e 100644
--- a/app/controllers/idv/gpo_controller.rb
+++ b/app/controllers/idv/gpo_controller.rb
@@ -137,15 +137,18 @@ def form_response(result, success)
     end
 
     def idv_throttle_params
-      [idv_session.current_user.id, :idv_resolution]
+      {
+        user: idv_session.current_user,
+        throttle_type: :idv_resolution,
+      }
     end
 
     def idv_attempter_increment
-      Throttler::Increment.call(*idv_throttle_params)
+      Throttle.for(**idv_throttle_params).increment
     end
 
     def idv_attempter_throttled?
-      Throttler::IsThrottled.call(*idv_throttle_params)
+      Throttle.for(**idv_throttle_params).throttled?
     end
 
     def throttle_failure
diff --git a/app/controllers/idv/session_errors_controller.rb b/app/controllers/idv/session_errors_controller.rb
index 54b3fd93de1..9de7e8ca805 100644
--- a/app/controllers/idv/session_errors_controller.rb
+++ b/app/controllers/idv/session_errors_controller.rb
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 module Idv
   class SessionErrorsController < ApplicationController
     include IdvSession
+    include EffectiveUser
 
     before_action :confirm_two_factor_authenticated_or_user_id_in_session
     before_action :confirm_idv_session_step_needed
@@ -12,7 +13,10 @@ def warning
     private
 
     def remaining_step_attempts
-      Throttler::RemainingCount.call(user_id, :idv_resolution)
+      Throttle.for(
+        user: effective_user,
+        throttle_type: :idv_resolution,
+      ).remaining_count
     end
 
     def confirm_two_factor_authenticated_or_user_id_in_session
@@ -25,12 +29,5 @@ def confirm_idv_session_step_needed
       return unless user_fully_authenticated?
       redirect_to idv_phone_url if idv_session.profile_confirmation == true
     end
-
-    def user_id
-      doc_capture_user_id = session[:doc_capture_user_id]
-      return doc_capture_user_id if doc_capture_user_id.present?
-
-      current_user.id
-    end
   end
 end
diff --git a/app/controllers/users/verify_account_controller.rb b/app/controllers/users/verify_account_controller.rb
index 4284739f92c..d7161395114 100644
--- a/app/controllers/users/verify_account_controller.rb
+++ b/app/controllers/users/verify_account_controller.rb
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ def index
       @verify_account_form = VerifyAccountForm.new(user: current_user)
       @code = session[:last_gpo_confirmation_code] if FeatureManagement.reveal_gpo_code?
 
-      if Throttler::IsThrottled.call(current_user.id, :verify_gpo_key)
+      if throttle.throttled?
         render_throttled
       else
         render :index
@@ -22,12 +22,7 @@ def index
     def create
       @verify_account_form = build_verify_account_form
 
-      throttled = Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement.call(
-        current_user.id,
-        :verify_gpo_key,
-      )
-
-      if throttled
+      if throttle.throttled_else_increment?
         render_throttled
       else
         result = @verify_account_form.submit
@@ -52,6 +47,13 @@ def create
 
     private
 
+    def throttle
+      @throttle ||= Throttle.for(
+        user: current_user,
+        throttle_type: :verify_gpo_key,
+      )
+    end
+
     def render_throttled
       analytics.track_event(
         Analytics::THROTTLER_RATE_LIMIT_TRIGGERED,
diff --git a/app/controllers/users/verify_personal_key_controller.rb b/app/controllers/users/verify_personal_key_controller.rb
index 90a60bce344..1a288824e93 100644
--- a/app/controllers/users/verify_personal_key_controller.rb
+++ b/app/controllers/users/verify_personal_key_controller.rb
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ def new
         personal_key: '',
       )
 
-      if Throttler::IsThrottled.call(current_user.id, :verify_personal_key)
+      if throttle.throttled?
         render_throttled
       else
         render :new
@@ -21,12 +21,7 @@ def new
     end
 
     def create
-      throttled = Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement.call(
-        current_user.id,
-        :verify_personal_key,
-      )
-
-      if throttled
+      if throttle.throttled_else_increment?
         render_throttled
       else
         result = personal_key_form.submit
@@ -42,6 +37,13 @@ def create
 
     private
 
+    def throttle
+      @throttle ||= Throttle.for(
+        user: current_user,
+        throttle_type: :verify_personal_key,
+      )
+    end
+
     def render_throttled
       analytics.track_event(
         Analytics::THROTTLER_RATE_LIMIT_TRIGGERED,
diff --git a/app/forms/idv/api_document_verification_form.rb b/app/forms/idv/api_document_verification_form.rb
index 6094718cfd6..c60d89ebce3 100644
--- a/app/forms/idv/api_document_verification_form.rb
+++ b/app/forms/idv/api_document_verification_form.rb
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ def submit
 
     def remaining_attempts
       return unless document_capture_session
-      Throttler::RemainingCount.call(document_capture_session.user_id, :idv_acuant)
+      throttle.remaining_count
     end
 
     def liveness_checking_enabled?
@@ -95,9 +95,13 @@ def throttle_if_rate_limited
 
     def throttled_else_increment
       return unless document_capture_session
-      @throttled = Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement.call(
-        document_capture_session.user_id,
-        :idv_acuant,
+      @throttled = throttle.throttled_else_increment?
+    end
+
+    def throttle
+      @throttle ||= Throttle.for(
+        user: document_capture_session.user,
+        throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
       )
     end
 
diff --git a/app/forms/idv/api_document_verification_status_form.rb b/app/forms/idv/api_document_verification_status_form.rb
index f6735c4d103..251c6359f1a 100644
--- a/app/forms/idv/api_document_verification_status_form.rb
+++ b/app/forms/idv/api_document_verification_status_form.rb
@@ -23,7 +23,10 @@ def submit
 
     def remaining_attempts
       return unless @document_capture_session
-      Throttler::RemainingCount.call(@document_capture_session.user_id, :idv_acuant)
+      Throttle.for(
+        user: @document_capture_session.user,
+        throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
+      ).remaining_count
     end
 
     def timeout_error
diff --git a/app/forms/idv/api_image_upload_form.rb b/app/forms/idv/api_image_upload_form.rb
index 2f64ffa1410..60c78ec5734 100644
--- a/app/forms/idv/api_image_upload_form.rb
+++ b/app/forms/idv/api_image_upload_form.rb
@@ -45,10 +45,7 @@ def submit
 
     def throttled_else_increment
       return unless document_capture_session
-      @throttled = Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement.call(
-        document_capture_session.user_id,
-        :idv_acuant,
-      )
+      @throttled = throttle.throttled_else_increment?
     end
 
     def validate_form
@@ -104,7 +101,7 @@ def extra_attributes
 
     def remaining_attempts
       return nil unless document_capture_session
-      Throttler::RemainingCount.call(document_capture_session.user_id, :idv_acuant)
+      throttle.remaining_count
     end
 
     def determine_response(form_response:, client_response:, doc_pii_response:)
@@ -247,5 +244,12 @@ def user_id
     def user_uuid
       document_capture_session&.user&.uuid
     end
+
+    def throttle
+      @throttle ||= Throttle.for(
+        user: document_capture_session.user,
+        throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
+      )
+    end
   end
 end
diff --git a/app/forms/register_user_email_form.rb b/app/forms/register_user_email_form.rb
index 89b2054c965..79b4c58f5b2 100644
--- a/app/forms/register_user_email_form.rb
+++ b/app/forms/register_user_email_form.rb
@@ -133,7 +133,8 @@ def process_errors(request_id)
   end
 
   def send_sign_up_unconfirmed_email(request_id)
-    @throttled = Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement.call(existing_user.id, :reg_unconfirmed_email)
+    throttler = Throttle.for(user: existing_user, throttle_type: :reg_unconfirmed_email)
+    @throttled = throttler.throttled_else_increment?
 
     if @throttled
       @analytics.track_event(
@@ -146,7 +147,8 @@ def send_sign_up_unconfirmed_email(request_id)
   end
 
   def send_sign_up_confirmed_email
-    @throttled = Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement.call(existing_user.id, :reg_confirmed_email)
+    throttler = Throttle.for(user: existing_user, throttle_type: :reg_confirmed_email)
+    @throttled = throttler.throttled_else_increment?
 
     if @throttled
       @analytics.track_event(
diff --git a/app/jobs/document_proofing_job.rb b/app/jobs/document_proofing_job.rb
index 6880123b396..5746537a25a 100644
--- a/app/jobs/document_proofing_job.rb
+++ b/app/jobs/document_proofing_job.rb
@@ -67,10 +67,7 @@ def perform(
       pii: proofer_result.pii_from_doc,
     )
 
-    remaining_attempts = Throttler::RemainingCount.call(
-      user.id,
-      :idv_acuant,
-    )
+    remaining_attempts = Throttle.for(user: user, throttle_type: :idv_acuant).remaining_count
 
     analytics.track_event(
       Analytics::IDV_DOC_AUTH_SUBMITTED_IMAGE_UPLOAD_VENDOR,
diff --git a/app/models/throttle.rb b/app/models/throttle.rb
index 6830b93ee63..8913989e7a9 100644
--- a/app/models/throttle.rb
+++ b/app/models/throttle.rb
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 class Throttle < ApplicationRecord
   belongs_to :user
-  validates :user_id, presence: true
+  validates :user_id, presence: true, unless: :target?
+  validates :target, presence: true, unless: :user_id?
 
   enum throttle_type: {
     idv_acuant: 1,
@@ -48,10 +49,49 @@ class Throttle < ApplicationRecord
     },
   }.freeze
 
+  # Either target or user must be supplied
+  # @param [Symbol] throttle_type
+  # @param [String] target
+  # @param [User] user
+  # @return [Throttle]
+  def self.for(throttle_type:, user: nil, target: nil)
+    throttle = if user
+      find_or_create_by(user: user, throttle_type: throttle_type)
+    elsif target
+      find_or_create_by(target: target, throttle_type: throttle_type)
+    else
+      raise 'Throttle must have a user or a target, but neither were provided'
+    end
+
+    throttle.reset_if_expired_and_maxed
+    throttle
+  end
+
+  # @return [Integer]
+  def increment
+    return attempts if maxed?
+    update(attempts: attempts + 1, attempted_at: Time.zone.now)
+    attempts
+  end
+
   def throttled?
     !expired? && maxed?
   end
 
+  def throttled_else_increment?
+    if throttled?
+      true
+    else
+      update(attempts: attempts + 1, attempted_at: Time.zone.now)
+      false
+    end
+  end
+
+  def reset
+    update(attempts: 0)
+    self
+  end
+
   def remaining_count
     return 0 if throttled?
     max_attempts, _attempt_window_in_minutes = Throttle.config_values(throttle_type)
@@ -73,4 +113,10 @@ def self.config_values(throttle_type)
     config = THROTTLE_CONFIG.with_indifferent_access[throttle_type]
     [config[:max_attempts], config[:attempt_window]]
   end
+
+  # @api private
+  def reset_if_expired_and_maxed
+    return unless expired? && maxed?
+    update(attempts: 0, throttled_count: throttled_count.to_i + 1)
+  end
 end
diff --git a/app/services/idv/actions/verify_document_status_action.rb b/app/services/idv/actions/verify_document_status_action.rb
index edbccd27b65..e537d524fcf 100644
--- a/app/services/idv/actions/verify_document_status_action.rb
+++ b/app/services/idv/actions/verify_document_status_action.rb
@@ -97,7 +97,10 @@ def async_state
 
       def remaining_attempts
         return nil unless verify_document_capture_session
-        Throttler::RemainingCount.call(verify_document_capture_session.user_id, :idv_acuant)
+        Throttle.for(
+          user: verify_document_capture_session.user,
+          throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
+        ).remaining_count
       end
 
       def timed_out
diff --git a/app/services/idv/steps/doc_auth_base_step.rb b/app/services/idv/steps/doc_auth_base_step.rb
index 95f3f988263..bc3423ae045 100644
--- a/app/services/idv/steps/doc_auth_base_step.rb
+++ b/app/services/idv/steps/doc_auth_base_step.rb
@@ -8,15 +8,18 @@ def initialize(flow)
       private
 
       def idv_throttle_params
-        [current_user.id, :idv_resolution]
+        {
+          user: current_user,
+          throttle_type: :idv_resolution,
+        }
       end
 
       def attempter_increment
-        Throttler::Increment.call(*idv_throttle_params)
+        Throttle.for(**idv_throttle_params).increment
       end
 
       def attempter_throttled?
-        Throttler::IsThrottled.call(*idv_throttle_params)
+        Throttle.for(**idv_throttle_params).throttled?
       end
 
       def idv_failure(result)
@@ -87,7 +90,10 @@ def throttled_url
       end
 
       def throttled_else_increment
-        Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement.call(user_id, :idv_acuant)
+        Throttle.for(
+          target: user_id,
+          throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
+        ).throttled_else_increment?
       end
 
       def user_id
diff --git a/app/services/idv/steps/send_link_step.rb b/app/services/idv/steps/send_link_step.rb
index 6dd935bd677..d5283d8164b 100644
--- a/app/services/idv/steps/send_link_step.rb
+++ b/app/services/idv/steps/send_link_step.rb
@@ -53,7 +53,10 @@ def link(session_uuid)
       end
 
       def throttled_else_increment
-        Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement.call(user_id, :idv_send_link)
+        Throttle.for(
+          user: current_user,
+          throttle_type: :idv_send_link,
+        ).throttled_else_increment?
       end
     end
   end
diff --git a/app/services/request_password_reset.rb b/app/services/request_password_reset.rb
index 771e726b072..3f86f5a2f85 100644
--- a/app/services/request_password_reset.rb
+++ b/app/services/request_password_reset.rb
@@ -16,8 +16,7 @@ def perform
   private
 
   def send_reset_password_instructions
-    throttled = Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement.call(user.id, :reset_password_email)
-    if throttled
+    if Throttle.for(user: user, throttle_type: :reset_password_email).throttled_else_increment?
       analytics.track_event(
         Analytics::THROTTLER_RATE_LIMIT_TRIGGERED,
         throttle_type: :reset_password_email,
diff --git a/app/services/throttler/find_or_create.rb b/app/services/throttler/find_or_create.rb
deleted file mode 100644
index 18abe2333a2..00000000000
--- a/app/services/throttler/find_or_create.rb
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,15 +0,0 @@
-module Throttler
-  class FindOrCreate
-    def self.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      throttle = Throttle.find_or_create_by(user_id: user_id, throttle_type: throttle_type)
-      reset_if_expired_and_maxed(throttle)
-    end
-
-    def self.reset_if_expired_and_maxed(throttle)
-      return throttle unless throttle.expired? && throttle.maxed?
-      throttle.update(attempts: 0, throttled_count: throttle.throttled_count.to_i + 1)
-      throttle
-    end
-    private_class_method :reset_if_expired_and_maxed
-  end
-end
diff --git a/app/services/throttler/increment.rb b/app/services/throttler/increment.rb
deleted file mode 100644
index 0f50a36e551..00000000000
--- a/app/services/throttler/increment.rb
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,10 +0,0 @@
-module Throttler
-  class Increment
-    def self.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      throttle = Throttler::FindOrCreate.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      return throttle if throttle.maxed?
-      throttle.update(attempts: throttle.attempts + 1, attempted_at: Time.zone.now)
-      throttle
-    end
-  end
-end
diff --git a/app/services/throttler/is_throttled.rb b/app/services/throttler/is_throttled.rb
deleted file mode 100644
index c128e08e828..00000000000
--- a/app/services/throttler/is_throttled.rb
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8 +0,0 @@
-module Throttler
-  class IsThrottled
-    def self.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      throttle = FindOrCreate.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      throttle.throttled? ? throttle : false
-    end
-  end
-end
diff --git a/app/services/throttler/is_throttled_else_increment.rb b/app/services/throttler/is_throttled_else_increment.rb
deleted file mode 100644
index 3250ecc0401..00000000000
--- a/app/services/throttler/is_throttled_else_increment.rb
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,10 +0,0 @@
-module Throttler
-  class IsThrottledElseIncrement
-    def self.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      throttle = FindOrCreate.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      return throttle if throttle.throttled?
-      throttle.update(attempts: throttle.attempts + 1, attempted_at: Time.zone.now)
-      false
-    end
-  end
-end
diff --git a/app/services/throttler/remaining_count.rb b/app/services/throttler/remaining_count.rb
deleted file mode 100644
index f87a2d7c3ce..00000000000
--- a/app/services/throttler/remaining_count.rb
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8 +0,0 @@
-module Throttler
-  class RemainingCount
-    def self.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      throttle = FindOrCreate.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      throttle.remaining_count
-    end
-  end
-end
diff --git a/app/services/throttler/reset.rb b/app/services/throttler/reset.rb
deleted file mode 100644
index 2221b48a422..00000000000
--- a/app/services/throttler/reset.rb
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,9 +0,0 @@
-module Throttler
-  class Reset
-    def self.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-      throttle = Throttle.find_or_create_by(user_id: user_id, throttle_type: throttle_type)
-      throttle.update(attempts: 0)
-      throttle
-    end
-  end
-end
diff --git a/db/migrate/20210817162607_add_target_to_throttles.rb b/db/migrate/20210817162607_add_target_to_throttles.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..4dc7e0da0b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/db/migrate/20210817162607_add_target_to_throttles.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+class AddTargetToThrottles < ActiveRecord::Migration[6.1]
+  def change
+    change_column_null :throttles, :user_id, true
+
+    add_column :throttles, :target, :string, null: true
+  end
+end
diff --git a/db/migrate/20210817200558_add_target_index_to_throttles.rb b/db/migrate/20210817200558_add_target_index_to_throttles.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..8898e43d7e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/db/migrate/20210817200558_add_target_index_to_throttles.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+class AddTargetIndexToThrottles < ActiveRecord::Migration[6.1]
+  disable_ddl_transaction!
+
+  def change
+    add_index :throttles, [:target, :throttle_type], algorithm: :concurrently
+  end
+end
diff --git a/db/schema.rb b/db/schema.rb
index b7c520684fc..69971489046 100644
--- a/db/schema.rb
+++ b/db/schema.rb
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 #
 # It's strongly recommended that you check this file into your version control system.
 
-ActiveRecord::Schema.define(version: 2021_08_11_191107) do
+ActiveRecord::Schema.define(version: 2021_08_17_200558) do
 
   # These are extensions that must be enabled in order to support this database
   enable_extension "pgcrypto"
@@ -613,11 +613,13 @@
   end
 
   create_table "throttles", force: :cascade do |t|
-    t.integer "user_id", null: false
+    t.integer "user_id"
     t.integer "throttle_type", null: false
     t.datetime "attempted_at"
     t.integer "attempts", default: 0
     t.integer "throttled_count"
+    t.string "target"
+    t.index ["target", "throttle_type"], name: "index_throttles_on_target_and_throttle_type"
     t.index ["user_id", "throttle_type"], name: "index_throttles_on_user_id_and_throttle_type"
   end
 
diff --git a/spec/controllers/idv/capture_doc_status_controller_spec.rb b/spec/controllers/idv/capture_doc_status_controller_spec.rb
index 49befabc339..3e137cff221 100644
--- a/spec/controllers/idv/capture_doc_status_controller_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/controllers/idv/capture_doc_status_controller_spec.rb
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
   end
 
   describe '#show' do
-    let(:document_capture_session) { DocumentCaptureSession.create! }
+    let(:document_capture_session) { DocumentCaptureSession.create!(user: user) }
     let(:flow_session) { { document_capture_session_uuid: document_capture_session.uuid } }
 
     before do
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@
 
     context 'when the user is throttled' do
       before do
-        allow(Throttler::IsThrottled).to receive(:call).with(user.id, :idv_acuant).and_return(true)
+        create(:throttle, :with_throttled, user: user, throttle_type: :idv_acuant)
       end
 
       it 'returns throttled with redirect' do
diff --git a/spec/controllers/idv/doc_auth_controller_spec.rb b/spec/controllers/idv/doc_auth_controller_spec.rb
index 01a4eb01935..9603bd082ac 100644
--- a/spec/controllers/idv/doc_auth_controller_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/controllers/idv/doc_auth_controller_spec.rb
@@ -411,10 +411,10 @@ def mock_next_step(step)
     allow_any_instance_of(Idv::Flows::DocAuthFlow).to receive(:next_step).and_return(step)
   end
 
-  let(:verify_document_action_session_uuid) { SecureRandom.uuid }
+  let(:user) { create(:user, :signed_up) }
+  let(:verify_document_action_session_uuid) { DocumentCaptureSession.create!(user: user).uuid }
 
   def mock_document_capture_step
-    user = create(:user, :signed_up)
     stub_sign_in(user)
     DocumentCaptureSession.create_by_user_id(user.id, @analytics, result_id: 1, uuid: 'foo')
     allow_any_instance_of(Flow::BaseFlow).to \
diff --git a/spec/controllers/idv/image_uploads_controller_spec.rb b/spec/controllers/idv/image_uploads_controller_spec.rb
index e5f6d96cd7a..951b11f1090 100644
--- a/spec/controllers/idv/image_uploads_controller_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/controllers/idv/image_uploads_controller_spec.rb
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
     subject(:action) { post :create, params: params }
 
     let(:user) { create(:user) }
-    let!(:document_capture_session) { user.document_capture_sessions.create! }
+    let!(:document_capture_session) { user.document_capture_sessions.create!(user: user) }
     let(:params) do
       {
         front: DocAuthImageFixtures.document_front_image_multipart,
@@ -141,7 +141,13 @@
     context 'throttling' do
       it 'returns remaining_attempts with error' do
         params.delete(:front)
-        allow(Throttler::RemainingCount).to receive(:call).and_return(3)
+        create(
+          :throttle,
+          :with_throttled,
+          attempts: IdentityConfig.store.acuant_max_attempts - 4,
+          user: user,
+          throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
+        )
 
         action
 
@@ -156,8 +162,7 @@
       end
 
       it 'returns an error when throttled' do
-        allow(Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement).to receive(:call).once.and_return(true)
-        allow(Throttler::RemainingCount).to receive(:call).and_return(0)
+        create(:throttle, :with_throttled, user: user, throttle_type: :idv_acuant)
 
         action
 
@@ -171,8 +176,13 @@
       end
 
       it 'tracks analytics' do
-        allow(Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement).to receive(:call).once.and_return(true)
-        allow(Throttler::RemainingCount).to receive(:call).and_return(0)
+        create(
+          :throttle,
+          :with_throttled,
+          attempts: IdentityConfig.store.acuant_max_attempts,
+          user: user,
+          throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
+        )
 
         stub_analytics
 
diff --git a/spec/controllers/idv/session_errors_controller_spec.rb b/spec/controllers/idv/session_errors_controller_spec.rb
index 72953985b0f..7d0adbc605d 100644
--- a/spec/controllers/idv/session_errors_controller_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/controllers/idv/session_errors_controller_spec.rb
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 shared_examples_for 'an idv session errors controller action' do
   context 'the user is authenticated and has not confirmed their profile' do
     it 'renders the error' do
-      stub_sign_in
+      stub_sign_in(create(:user))
 
       get action
 
diff --git a/spec/controllers/users/verify_account_controller_spec.rb b/spec/controllers/users/verify_account_controller_spec.rb
index bbcf565e008..9bc118e47df 100644
--- a/spec/controllers/users/verify_account_controller_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/controllers/users/verify_account_controller_spec.rb
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@
       end
 
       it 'shows throttled page is user is throttled' do
-        allow(Throttler::IsThrottled).to receive(:call).once.and_return(true)
+        create(:throttle, :with_throttled, user: user, throttle_type: :verify_gpo_key)
 
         action
 
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@
 
     context 'with throttle reached' do
       before do
-        allow(Throttler::IsThrottled).to receive(:call).once.and_return(true)
+        create(:throttle, :with_throttled, user: user, throttle_type: :verify_gpo_key)
       end
 
       it 'renders throttled page' do
diff --git a/spec/controllers/users/verify_personal_key_controller_spec.rb b/spec/controllers/users/verify_personal_key_controller_spec.rb
index 7d59db2a0d8..17c641e38cc 100644
--- a/spec/controllers/users/verify_personal_key_controller_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/controllers/users/verify_personal_key_controller_spec.rb
@@ -37,7 +37,8 @@
       end
 
       it 'shows throttled page after being throttled' do
-        allow(Throttler::IsThrottled).to receive(:call).once.and_return(true)
+        create(:throttle, :with_throttled, user: user, throttle_type: :verify_personal_key)
+
         get :new
 
         expect(response).to render_template(:throttled)
@@ -48,7 +49,7 @@
       let(:profiles) { [create(:profile, deactivation_reason: :password_reset)] }
 
       before do
-        allow(Throttler::IsThrottled).to receive(:call).once.and_return(true)
+        create(:throttle, :with_throttled, user: user, throttle_type: :verify_personal_key)
       end
 
       it 'renders throttled page' do
diff --git a/spec/factories/throttles.rb b/spec/factories/throttles.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c8cbb58f3ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/spec/factories/throttles.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+FactoryBot.define do
+  factory :throttle do
+    trait :with_throttled do
+      attempts { 9999 }
+      attempted_at { Time.zone.now }
+    end
+  end
+end
diff --git a/spec/forms/idv/api_document_verification_form_spec.rb b/spec/forms/idv/api_document_verification_form_spec.rb
index 7dc064795a5..792b4694288 100644
--- a/spec/forms/idv/api_document_verification_form_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/forms/idv/api_document_verification_form_spec.rb
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@
   let(:back_image_iv) { 'back-iv' }
   let(:selfie_image_url) { 'http://example.com/selfie' }
   let(:selfie_image_iv) { 'selfie-iv' }
-  let!(:document_capture_session) { DocumentCaptureSession.create! }
+  let!(:document_capture_session) { DocumentCaptureSession.create!(user: create(:user)) }
   let(:document_capture_session_uuid) { document_capture_session.uuid }
   let(:analytics) { FakeAnalytics.new }
   let(:liveness_checking_enabled?) { true }
@@ -113,7 +113,12 @@
 
     context 'when throttled from submission' do
       before do
-        allow(Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement).to receive(:call).once.and_return(true)
+        create(
+          :throttle,
+          :with_throttled,
+          user: document_capture_session.user,
+          throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
+        )
         form.submit
       end
 
diff --git a/spec/forms/idv/api_document_verification_status_form_spec.rb b/spec/forms/idv/api_document_verification_status_form_spec.rb
index b326e86ebfc..7aa305ab651 100644
--- a/spec/forms/idv/api_document_verification_status_form_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/forms/idv/api_document_verification_status_form_spec.rb
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
   end
 
   let(:async_state) { DocumentCaptureSessionAsyncResult.new }
-  let(:document_capture_session) { DocumentCaptureSession.create! }
+  let(:document_capture_session) { DocumentCaptureSession.create!(user: build(:user)) }
 
   describe '#valid?' do
     context 'with timeout async state' do
diff --git a/spec/forms/idv/api_image_upload_form_spec.rb b/spec/forms/idv/api_image_upload_form_spec.rb
index ecb8666ae11..f17dd4954c4 100644
--- a/spec/forms/idv/api_image_upload_form_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/forms/idv/api_image_upload_form_spec.rb
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@
     { width: 20, height: 20, mimeType: 'image/png', source: 'upload' }.to_json
   end
   let(:selfie_image) { DocAuthImageFixtures.selfie_image_multipart }
-  let!(:document_capture_session) { DocumentCaptureSession.create! }
+  let!(:document_capture_session) { DocumentCaptureSession.create!(user: create(:user)) }
   let(:document_capture_session_uuid) { document_capture_session.uuid }
   let(:liveness_checking_enabled?) { true }
   let(:fake_analytics) { FakeAnalytics.new }
@@ -81,7 +81,12 @@
 
     context 'when throttled from submission' do
       before do
-        allow(Throttler::IsThrottledElseIncrement).to receive(:call).once.and_return(true)
+        create(
+          :throttle,
+          :with_throttled,
+          user: document_capture_session.user,
+          throttle_type: :idv_acuant,
+        )
         form.submit
       end
 
@@ -104,9 +109,9 @@
           exception: nil,
           doc_auth_result: 'Passed',
           billed: true,
-          remaining_attempts: IdentityConfig.store.acuant_max_attempts,
+          remaining_attempts: IdentityConfig.store.acuant_max_attempts - 1,
           state: 'MT',
-          user_id: nil,
+          user_id: document_capture_session.user.uuid,
           client_image_metrics: {
             front: JSON.parse(front_image_metadata, symbolize_names: true),
             back: JSON.parse(back_image_metadata, symbolize_names: true),
@@ -143,8 +148,8 @@
           exception: nil,
           doc_auth_result: 'Passed',
           billed: true,
-          remaining_attempts: IdentityConfig.store.acuant_max_attempts,
-          user_id: nil,
+          remaining_attempts: IdentityConfig.store.acuant_max_attempts - 1,
+          user_id: document_capture_session.user.uuid,
           client_image_metrics: {
             front: JSON.parse(front_image_metadata, symbolize_names: true),
           },
diff --git a/spec/models/throttle_spec.rb b/spec/models/throttle_spec.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..c105a78332f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/spec/models/throttle_spec.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,158 @@
+require 'rails_helper'
+
+RSpec.describe Throttle do
+  let(:throttle_type) { :idv_acuant }
+
+  describe '.for' do
+    context 'when target is a user' do
+      let(:user) { create(:user) }
+      subject(:for_target) { Throttle.for(user: user, throttle_type: throttle_type) }
+
+      context 'throttle does not exist yet' do
+        it 'creates a new throttle row' do
+          expect { for_target }.to change { Throttle.count }.by(1)
+        end
+      end
+
+      context 'throttle already exists' do
+        let!(:existing) { create(:throttle, user: user, throttle_type: throttle_type) }
+
+        it 'does not create a new throttle row' do
+          expect { for_target }.to_not change { Throttle.count }
+
+          expect(for_target).to eq(existing)
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    context 'when target is a string' do
+      let(:target) { Digest::SHA256.hexdigest(SecureRandom.hex) }
+      subject(:for_target) { Throttle.for(target: target, throttle_type: throttle_type) }
+
+      context 'throttle does not exist yet' do
+        it 'creates a new throttle row' do
+          expect { for_target }.to change { Throttle.count }.by(1)
+        end
+      end
+
+      context 'throttle already exists' do
+        let!(:existing) { create(:throttle, target: target, throttle_type: throttle_type) }
+
+        it 'does not create a new throttle row' do
+          expect { for_target }.to_not change { Throttle.count }
+
+          expect(for_target).to eq(existing)
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    context 'when target and user are missing' do
+      it 'throws an error' do
+        expect { Throttle.for(throttle_type: throttle_type) }.
+          to raise_error(/Throttle must have a user or a target/)
+      end
+    end
+  end
+
+  describe '#increment' do
+    subject(:throttle) { Throttle.for(target: 'aaa', throttle_type: :idv_acuant) }
+
+    it 'increments attempts' do
+      expect { throttle.increment }.to change { throttle.reload.attempts }.by(1)
+    end
+  end
+
+  describe '#throttled?' do
+    let(:user) { create(:user) }
+    let(:throttle_type) { :idv_acuant }
+    let(:throttle) { Throttle.all.first }
+    let(:max_attempts) { IdentityConfig.store.acuant_max_attempts }
+    let(:attempt_window_in_minutes) { IdentityConfig.store.acuant_attempt_window_in_minutes }
+
+    subject(:throttle) { Throttle.for(user: user, throttle_type: throttle_type) }
+
+    it 'returns true if throttled' do
+      create(
+        :throttle,
+        user: user,
+        throttle_type: throttle_type,
+        attempts: max_attempts,
+        attempted_at: Time.zone.now,
+      )
+
+      expect(throttle.throttled?).to eq(true)
+    end
+
+    it 'returns false if the attempts < max_attempts' do
+      create(
+        :throttle,
+        user: user,
+        throttle_type: throttle_type,
+        attempts: max_attempts - 1,
+        attempted_at: Time.zone.now,
+      )
+
+      expect(throttle.throttled?).to eq(false)
+    end
+
+    it 'returns false if the attempts <= max_attempts but the window is expired' do
+      create(
+        :throttle,
+        user: user,
+        throttle_type: throttle_type,
+        attempts: max_attempts,
+        attempted_at: Time.zone.now - attempt_window_in_minutes.minutes,
+      )
+
+      expect(throttle.throttled?).to eq(false)
+    end
+  end
+
+  describe '#throttled_else_increment?' do
+    subject(:throttle) { Throttle.for(target: 'aaaa', throttle_type: :idv_acuant) }
+
+    context 'throttle has hit limit' do
+      before do
+        throttle.update(
+          attempts: IdentityConfig.store.acuant_max_attempts + 1,
+          attempted_at: Time.zone.now,
+        )
+      end
+
+      it 'is true' do
+        expect(throttle.throttled_else_increment?).to eq(true)
+      end
+    end
+
+    context 'throttle has not hit limit' do
+      it 'is false' do
+        expect(throttle.throttled_else_increment?).to eq(false)
+      end
+
+      it 'increments the throttle' do
+        expect { throttle.throttled_else_increment? }.to change { throttle.reload.attempts }.by(1)
+      end
+    end
+  end
+
+  describe '#reset' do
+    let(:user) { create(:user) }
+    let(:throttle_type) { :idv_acuant }
+    let(:max_attempts) { 3 }
+    let(:subject) { described_class }
+
+    subject(:throttle) { Throttle.for(user: user, throttle_type: throttle_type) }
+
+    it 'resets attempt count to 0' do
+      create(
+        :throttle,
+        user: user,
+        throttle_type: throttle_type,
+        attempts: max_attempts,
+        attempted_at: Time.zone.now,
+      )
+
+      expect { throttle.reset }.to change { throttle.reload.attempts }.to(0)
+    end
+  end
+end
diff --git a/spec/services/idv/actions/verify_document_status_action_spec.rb b/spec/services/idv/actions/verify_document_status_action_spec.rb
index 5d722ea2dda..14edac581e8 100644
--- a/spec/services/idv/actions/verify_document_status_action_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/services/idv/actions/verify_document_status_action_spec.rb
@@ -60,6 +60,7 @@
       verify_document_capture_session = DocumentCaptureSession.new(
         uuid: 'uuid',
         result_id: 'result_id',
+        user: create(:user),
       )
 
       expect(subject).to receive(:verify_document_capture_session).
diff --git a/spec/services/throttler/increment_spec.rb b/spec/services/throttler/increment_spec.rb
deleted file mode 100644
index 77dc1c18d0d..00000000000
--- a/spec/services/throttler/increment_spec.rb
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,28 +0,0 @@
-require 'rails_helper'
-
-describe Throttler::Increment do
-  let(:user_id) { 1 }
-  let(:throttle_type) { :idv_acuant }
-  let(:subject) { described_class }
-  let(:throttle) { Throttle.all.first }
-
-  it 'creates and increments a throttle if one does not exist' do
-    subject.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-
-    expect(throttle.attempts).to eq(1)
-    expect(throttle.attempted_at).to be_present
-  end
-
-  it 'it increments a throttle if one exists' do
-    Throttle.create(
-      user_id: user_id,
-      throttle_type: throttle_type,
-      attempts: 1,
-      attempted_at: Time.zone.now,
-    )
-    subject.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-
-    expect(throttle.attempts).to eq(2)
-    expect(throttle.attempted_at).to be_present
-  end
-end
diff --git a/spec/services/throttler/is_throttled_spec.rb b/spec/services/throttler/is_throttled_spec.rb
deleted file mode 100644
index 070d38e3a85..00000000000
--- a/spec/services/throttler/is_throttled_spec.rb
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,46 +0,0 @@
-require 'rails_helper'
-
-describe Throttler::IsThrottled do
-  let(:user_id) { 1 }
-  let(:throttle_type) { :idv_acuant }
-  let(:subject) { described_class }
-  let(:throttle) { Throttle.all.first }
-  let(:max_attempts) { IdentityConfig.store.acuant_max_attempts }
-  let(:attempt_window_in_minutes) { IdentityConfig.store.acuant_attempt_window_in_minutes }
-
-  it 'returns throttle if throttled' do
-    Throttle.create(
-      user_id: user_id,
-      throttle_type: throttle_type,
-      attempts: max_attempts,
-      attempted_at: Time.zone.now,
-    )
-    result = subject.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-
-    expect(result.class).to eq(Throttle)
-  end
-
-  it 'returns nil if the attempts < max_attempts' do
-    Throttle.create(
-      user_id: user_id,
-      throttle_type: throttle_type,
-      attempts: max_attempts - 1,
-      attempted_at: Time.zone.now,
-    )
-    result = subject.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-
-    expect(result).to be(false)
-  end
-
-  it 'returns nil if the attempts <= max_attempts but the window is expired' do
-    Throttle.create(
-      user_id: user_id,
-      throttle_type: throttle_type,
-      attempts: max_attempts,
-      attempted_at: Time.zone.now - attempt_window_in_minutes.minutes,
-    )
-    result = subject.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-
-    expect(result).to be(false)
-  end
-end
diff --git a/spec/services/throttler/reset_spec.rb b/spec/services/throttler/reset_spec.rb
deleted file mode 100644
index 9eda2a7d4b2..00000000000
--- a/spec/services/throttler/reset_spec.rb
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,21 +0,0 @@
-require 'rails_helper'
-
-describe Throttler::Reset do
-  let(:user_id) { 1 }
-  let(:throttle_type) { :idv_acuant }
-  let(:max_attempts) { 3 }
-  let(:subject) { described_class }
-  let(:throttle) { Throttle.all.first }
-
-  it 'resets attempt count to 0' do
-    Throttle.create(
-      user_id: user_id,
-      throttle_type: throttle_type,
-      attempts: max_attempts,
-      attempted_at: Time.zone.now,
-    )
-    subject.call(user_id, throttle_type)
-
-    expect(throttle.attempts).to eq(0)
-  end
-end